Ocean acidification (OA) affects marine biodiversity and alters the structure and function of marine populations, communities, and ecosystems. Recently, effects of OA on the behavioral responses of marine animals have been given with much attention. While many of previous studies focuses on marine fish. Evidence suggests that marine invertebrate behaviors were also be affected. In this review, we discussed the effects of C02-driven OA on the most common behaviors studied in marine invertebrates, including settlement and habitat selection, feeding, anti-predatory, and swimming behaviors, and explored the related mechanisms behind behaviors. This review summarizes how OA affects marine invertebrate behavior, and provides new insights and highlights novel areas for future research.
Posts Tagged 'cnidaria'
Behavioral responses to ocean acidification in marine invertebrates: new insights and future directions
Published 2 December 2019 Science ClosedTags: annelids, biological response, bryozoa, cnidaria, crustaceans, echinoderms, mollusks, review
Does seawater acidification affect zooxanthellae density and health in the invasive upside‐down jellyfish, Cassiopea spp.?
Published 19 August 2019 Science ClosedTags: abundance, biological response, cnidaria, laboratory, morphology, otherprocess, phytoplankton
Ocean acidification is the decline in seawater pH that results from the absorption of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Decreased pH has negative effects on survivability, growth, and development in many marine calcifiers, potentially resulting in reduced coral species richness. This reduction in richness could open new niche space, allowing the spread of invasive species, such as the upside‐down jellyfish (Cassiopea spp.). Like corals, this jellyfish forms symbiotic relationships with zooxanthellae, photosynthetic dinoflagellates. This study focused on the effect of seawater acidification in Cassiopea spp. We monitored zooxanthellae density and two measures of health (bell diameter and volume) in individuals of Cassiopea sp. at three pH levels chosen to mimic different open‐ocean average conditions: 8.2, representing pre‐industrial revolution conditions; and 7.9 and 7.6, representing predicted declines in pH in the next century. Zooxanthellae density and health of the jellyfish were measured twice—prior to experimental manipulations and after four weeks of exposure to experimental pHs—in three consecutive trials. The effects of pH and Trial on proportional change in jellyfish attributes were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models. We found no significant effects of either factor. These results indicate that decreasing seawater pH has no apparent negative effect on zooxanthellae density or health in Cassiopea, which suggests that these jellyfish may be relatively insensitive to the impacts of ocean acidification, heightening its potential as an invasive species.
Extreme, but not moderate climate scenarios, impart sublethal effects on polyps of the Irukandji jellyfish, Carukia barnesi
Published 5 June 2019 Science ClosedTags: biological response, cnidaria, laboratory, multiple factors, performance, physiology, reproduction, respiration, South Pacific, temperature
Highlights
• Sublethal effects on Carukia barnesi polyps only manifested in extreme conditions.
• Individual metabolites were suppressed in extreme pH and elevated temperature treatments.
• C. barnesi polyps are unaffected by the most optimistic climate scenario and can survive in extreme conditions.
Abstract
Ocean acidification and warming, fueled by excess atmospheric carbon dioxide, can impose stress on marine organisms. Most studies testing the effects of climate change on marine organisms, however, use extreme climate projection scenarios, despite moderate projections scenarios being most likely to occur. Here, we examined the interactive effects of warming and acidification on reproduction, respiration, mobility and metabolic composition of polyps of the Irukandji jellyfish, Carukia barnesi, to determine the responses of a cubozoan jellyfish to moderate and extreme climate scenarios in Queensland, Australia. The experiment consisted two orthogonal factors: temperature (current 25 °C and future 28 °C) and pH (current (8.0) moderate (7.9) and extreme (7.7)). All polyps survived in the experiment but fewer polyps were produced in the pH 7.7 treatment compared to pH 7.9 and pH 8.0. Respiration rates were elevated in the lowest pH treatment throughout most of the experiment and polyps were approximately half as mobile in this treatment compared to pH 7.9 and pH 8.0, regardless of temperature. We identified metabolites occurring at significantly lower relative abundance in the lowest pH (i.e. glutamate, acetate, betaine, methylguanidine, lysine, sarcosine, glycine) and elevated temperature (i.e. proline, trigonelline, creatinine, mannose, acetate, betaine, methylguanidine, lysine, sarcosine) treatments. Glycine was the only metabolite exhibiting an interactive effect between pH and temperature. Our results suggest that C. barnesi polyps are unaffected by the most optimistic climate scenario and may tolerate even extreme climate conditions to some extent.
Ocean acidification at a coastal CO2 vent induces expression of stress-related transcripts and transposable elements in the sea anemone Anemonia viridis
Published 14 May 2019 Science ClosedTags: biological response, chemistry, cnidaria, field, Mediterranean, molecular biology, physiology, protists, vents
Ocean acidification threatens to disrupt interactions between organisms throughout marine ecosystems. The diversity of reef-building organisms decreases as seawater CO2 increases along natural gradients, yet soft-bodied animals, such as sea anemones, are often resilient. We sequenced the polyA-enriched transcriptome of adult sea anemone Anemonia viridis and its dinoflagellate symbiont sampled along a natural CO2 gradient in Italy to assess stress levels in these organisms. We found that about 3.1% of the anemone transcripts, but <1% of the Symbiodinium sp. transcripts were differentially expressed. Processes enriched at high seawater CO2 were linked to cellular stress and inflammation, including significant up-regulation of protective cellular functions and down-regulation of metabolic pathways. Transposable elements were differentially expressed at high seawater CO2, with an extreme up-regulation (> 100-fold) of the BEL-family of long terminal repeat retrotransposons. Seawater acidified by CO2 generated a significant stress reaction in A. viridis, but no bleaching was observed and Symbiodinium sp. appeared to be less affected. These observed changes indicate the mechanisms by which A. viridis acclimate to survive chronic exposure to ocean acidification conditions. We conclude that many organisms that are common in acidified conditions may nevertheless incur costs due to hypercapnia and/or lowered carbonate saturation states.
Ocean acidification causes mortality in the medusa stage of the cubozoan Carybdea xaymacana
Published 10 April 2019 Science ClosedTags: biological response, cnidaria, laboratory, mortality, North Atlantic
Ocean pH is decreasing due to anthropogenic activities, and the consequences of this acidification on marine fauna and ecosystems are the subject of an increasing number of studies. Yet, the impact of ocean acidification (OA) on several abundant and ecologically important taxa, such as medusozoans, is poorly documented. To date there have been no studies on the effect of post-2050 OA projections on the medusa stage of jellyfish. As medusae represent the reproductive stage of cnidarians, negative impacts on adult jellyfish could severely impact the long-term survival of this group. Using a laboratory experiment, we investigated the effect of 2300 OA projections (i.e. pH of 7.5) on the mortality rate of the medusa-stage of the cubozoan species Carybdea xaymacana, compared to ambient seawater pH conditions (i.e. pH of 8.1). After a 12-h exposure to OA, C. xaymacana medusae suffered higher mortality rates compared to ambient conditions. This study represents the first evidence of the potential lethal effects of post-2050 OA projections on jellyfish. The higher metabolic rates of cubozoans compared to other cnidarians might make box jellyfish more vulnerable to OA. A decrease in the density of cnidarians could lead to harmful ecological events, such as algal blooms.
The weakest link: sensitivity to climate extremes across life stages of marine invertebrates
Published 17 December 2018 Science ClosedTags: annelids, arthropoda, biological response, chordata, cnidaria, echinoderms, mollusks, mortality, review
Predicting the effects of climate change on Earth’s biota becomes even more challenging when acknowledging that most species have life cycles consisting of multiple stages, each of which may respond differently to extreme environmental conditions. There is currently no clear consensus regarding which stages are most susceptible to increasing environmental stress, or ‘climate extremes’. We used a meta‐analytic approach to quantify variation in responses to environmental stress across multiple life stages of marine invertebrates. We identified 287 experiments in 29 papers which examined the lethal thresholds of multiple life stages (embryo, larva, juvenile, and adult) of both holoplanktonic and meroplanktonic marine invertebrates subjected to the same experimental conditions of warming, acidification, and hypoxia stress. Most studies considered short acute exposure to stressors. We calculated effect sizes (log response ratio) for each life stage (unpaired analysis) and the difference in effect sizes between stages of each species (paired analysis) included in each experiment. In the unpaired analysis, all significant responses were negative, indicating that warming, acidification and hypoxia tended to increase mortality. Furthermore, embryos, larvae, and juveniles were more negatively affected by warming than adults. The paired analysis revealed that, when subjected to the same experimental conditions, younger life stages were more negatively affected by warming than older life stages, specifically among pairings of adults vs. juveniles and larvae vs. embryos. Although responses to warming are well documented, few studies of the effects of acidification and hypoxia met the criteria for inclusion in our analyses. Our results suggest that while most life stages will be negatively affected by climate change, younger stages of marine invertebrates are more sensitive to extreme heating events.
Eating in an acidifying ocean: a quantitative review of elevated CO2 effects on the feeding rates of calcifying marine invertebrates
Published 2 July 2018 Science ClosedTags: biological response, cnidaria, echinoderms, mollusks, performance, physiology, porifera, review
Feeding is fundamental for all heterotrophic organisms, providing the means to acquire energy for basic life processes. Recent studies have suggested that experimental ocean acidification (OA) can alter the feeding performance of marine calcifying invertebrates, but results have been inconsistent. While several reviews pertaining to the biological effects of OA exist, none provide a synthesis of OA effects on feeding performance. Here, we provide a quantitative analysis of published experiments testing for effects of elevated CO2 on feeding rates of marine calcifying invertebrates. Results revealed that suspension-feeding molluscs and predatory and grazing echinoderms experienced depressed feeding rates under elevated CO2, while arthropods appeared unaffected; larval and juvenile animals were more susceptible to CO2 effects than adults. Feeding strategy did not appear to influence the overall taxonomic trend, nor did habitat, although exposure time did have an effect. AIC model selection revealed that Phylum best predicted effect size; life stage and exposure time were also included in candidate models. Based on these results, we synthesize potential physiological attributes of different taxa that may drive OA sensitivities in feeding rates, which could potentially result in community-level impacts. We also discuss CO2 effects on calcifier feeding in the context of elevated temperature and other global marine change stressors, and highlight other areas for future research.
The effects of ocean acidification on feeding and contest behaviour by the beadlet anemone Actinia equina
Published 22 May 2018 Science ClosedTags: biological response, cnidaria, laboratory, performance
Increasing concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide are causing oceanic pH to decline worldwide, a phenomenon termed ocean acidification. Mounting experimental evidence indicates that near-future levels of CO2 will affect calcareous invertebrates such as corals, molluscs and gastropods, by reducing their scope for calcification. Despite extensive research into ocean acidification in recent years, the effects on non-calcifying anthozoans, such as sea anemones, remain little explored. In Western Europe, intertidal anemones such as Actinia equina are abundant, lower trophic-level organisms that function as important ecosystem engineers. Changes to behaviours of these simple predators could have implications for intertidal assemblages. This investigation identified the effects of reduced seawater pH on feeding and contest behaviour by A. equina. Video footage was recorded for A. equina feeding at current-day seawater (pH 8.1), and the least (pH 7.9) and most (pH 7.6) severe end-of-century predictions. Footage was also taken of contests over ownership of space between anemones exposed to reduced pH and those that were not. No statistically significant differences were identified in feeding duration or various aspects of contest behaviour including initiating, winning, inflating acrorhagi, inflicting acrorhagial peels and contest duration. Multivariate analyses showed no effect of pH on a combination of these variables. This provides contrast with other studies where anemones with symbiotic algae thrive in areas of natural increased acidity. Thus, novel experiments using intraspecific contests and resource-holding potential may prove an effective approach to understand sub-lethal consequences of ocean acidification for A. equina, other sea anemones and more broadly for marine ecosystems.
Combined effects of ocean acidification and temperature on planula larvae of the moon jellyfish Aurelia coerulea
Published 17 May 2018 Science ClosedTags: biological response, cnidaria, laboratory, mortality, multiple factors, North Pacific, performance, reproduction, temperature
Highlights
• We addressed the impact of ocean acidification and seawater temperature increases on scyphozoan planulae.
• A. coerulea planulae can cope well with decreased pH conditions through rapid settlement.
• Elevated seawater temperature appears to be a crucial stress factor for A. coerulea planulae.
Abstract
Rapidly rising levels of atmospheric CO2 have caused two environmental stressors, ocean acidification and seawater temperature increases, which represent major abiotic threats to marine organisms. Here, we investigated for the first time the combined effects of ocean acidification and seawater temperature increases on the behavior, survival, and settlement of the planula larvae of Aurelia coerulea, which is considered a nuisance species around the world. Three pH levels (8.1, 7.7 and 7.3) and two temperature levels (24 °C and 27 °C) were used in the present study. There were no interactive effects of temperature and pH on the behavior, survival, and settlement of planula larvae of A. coerulea. We found that the swimming speed and mortality of the planula larvae of A. coerulea were significantly affected by temperature, and low pH significantly affected settlement. Planula larvae of A. coerulea from the elevated temperature treatment moved faster and showed higher mortality than those at the control temperature. The settlement rate of A. coerulea planulae was significantly higher at the pH level of 7.3 than at other pH levels. These results suggest that seawater temperature increase, rather than reduced pH, was the main stress factor affecting the survival of A. coerulea planulae. Overall, the planula larvae of the common jellyfish A. coerulea appeared to be resistant to ocean acidification, but may be negatively affected by future seawater temperature increases.
Expression of homing endonuclease gene and insertion-like element in sea anemone mitochondrial genomes: lesson learned from Anemonia viridis
Published 1 February 2018 Science ClosedTags: biological response, cnidaria, field, Mediterranean, molecular biology, physiology
- • We report complete mitochondrial genome sequences and corresponding mito-transcriptomes of the two related sea anemone species Anemonia viridis and Anemonia majano
- • We describe structural features of group I introns in the NADH dehydrogenase 5 gene and the cytochrome oxidase I (COI) gene, the latter containing a homing endonuclease gene
- • We provide support of that the intron homing endonuclease gene is expressed in a gene-fusion strategy involving exon 1 of the COI gene
- • We show that the insertion-like element orfA is well expressed from sea anemone mitochondrial geneomes
- • Long-term environmental stress due to low-seawater pH conditions results in up-regulation of COI and orfA gene expressions in Anemonia viridis
The mitochondrial genomes of sea anemones are dynamic in structure. Invasion by genetic elements, such as self-catalytic group I introns or insertion-like sequences, contribute to sea anemone mitochondrial genome expansion and complexity. By using next generation sequencing we investigated the complete mtDNAs and corresponding transcriptomes of the temperate sea anemone Anemonia viridis and its closer tropical relative Anemonia majano. Two versions of fused homing endonuclease gene (HEG) organization were observed among the Actiniidae sea anemones; in-frame gene fusion and pseudo-gene fusion. We provided support for the pseudo-gene fusion organization in Anemonia species, resulting in a repressed HEG from the COI-884 group I intron. orfA, a putative protein-coding gene with insertion-like features, was present in both Anemonia species. Interestingly, orfA and COI expression were significantly up-regulated upon long-term environmental stress corresponding to low seawater pH conditions. This study provides new insights to the dynamics of sea anemone mitochondrial genome structure and function.
The relationship among environmental variables, jellyfish and non-gelatinous zooplankton: a case study in the north of the Gulf of Oman
Published 5 January 2018 Science ClosedTags: biological response, cnidaria, field, Indian, zooplankton
Processes underlying the temporal and spatial variations observed in the distribution of jellyfish and non-gelatinous zooplankton in the Gulf of Oman are not well understood. This information gap is clearly a major issue in controlling the harmful blooms of jellyfish and non-gelatinous zooplankton. Samples of jellyfish and non-gelatinous zooplankton were collected from six stations in Chabahar Bay and three stations in Pozm Bay within four seasons. At each station, environmental variables were also recorded from bottom and surface water. A total of 83 individuals of medusae representing four species of Scyphozoa (i.e., Cyanea nozakii, Chrysaora sp., Pelagia noctiluca, Catostylus tagi) and species of Hydrozoa (i.e., Diphyes sp., Rhacostoma sp., Aequorea spp.) were observed in the study area. A total of 70,727.25 individuals/m−3 of non-gelatinous zooplankton dominated by copepods and cladocerans were collected in nine stations within the four seasons. The results of a RELATE analysis yielded no significant association between species composition for jellyfish and non-gelatinous zooplankton. Among environmental variables, water transparency, nitrite concentration, water depth and temperature were better associated with the total variation in jellyfish species composition than with that of non-gelatinous zooplankton. Dissolved oxygen, pH, and phosphate concentration were significant environmental variables associated with the variation in the spatial and temporal distribution patterns of non-gelatinous zooplankton assemblages. Although some jellyfish species (i.e., Rhacostoma sp., Pelagia noctiluca, Catostylus tagi) occur independently of non-gelatinous zooplankton assemblages, other jellyfish (i.e., Chrysaora sp., Aequorea spp., Cyanea nozakii, Diphyes sp.) are strongly correlated with non-gelatinous zooplankton assemblages.
Effects of CO2-driven acidification of seawater on the calcification process in the calcareous hydrozoan Millepora alcicornis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Published 7 December 2017 Science ClosedTags: biological response, calcification, cnidaria, corals, laboratory, mesocosms, physiology
Ocean acidification is expected to intensify due to increasing levels in the partial pressure of atmospheric CO2 (pCO2). This could negatively affect major calcifying reef organisms. In this study, the effects of different levels of CO2-driven acidification of seawater (control: pH 8.1; moderate: pH 7.8; intermediate: pH 7.5; and severe: pH 7.2) on the net calcification rate and activity of enzymes related to the calcification process (Ca-ATPase and carbonic anhydrase) were evaluated in the calcareous hydrozoan Millepora alcicornis. The experiment was run for 30 d using a marine mesocosm system. Net calcification ratio was significantly reduced in hydrocorals exposed to intermediate seawater acidification for 16 d and to severe seawater acidification for 16 d or 30 d, compared to animals at control conditions. However, only hydrocorals exposed to severe seawater acidification showed lower net calcification rates than those exposed to control conditions for 30 d. In accordance, the activities of enzymes involved in the calcification process markedly increased in hydrocorals exposed to reduced pH. Ca-ATPase seemed to be more sensitive to seawater acidification than carbonic anhydrase as it increased in hydrocorals exposed to intermediate and severe seawater acidification for 30 d, while carbonic anhydrase activity was only stimulated under severe seawater acidification. Therefore, our findings clearly show that the hydrocoral M. alcicornis is able to cope, to some extent, with long-term CO2-driven acidification of seawater (pH ≥ 7.5). In addition, they show that Ca-ATPase plays a key role in the maintenance of calcification rate under scenarios of moderate and intermediate levels of seawater acidification. However, the observed increase in Ca-ATPase and carbonic anhydrase activity was not enough to compensate for the effects of CO2-driven reduction in seawater pH on the net calcification rate of the hydrocoral M. alcicornis under a scenario of severe ocean acidification (pH 7.2).
Exposure to elevated pCO2 does not exacerbate reproductive suppression of Aurelia aurita jellyfish polyps in low oxygen environments
Published 17 October 2017 Science ClosedTags: biological response, cnidaria, laboratory, oxygen, reproduction, respiration, South Pacific
Eutrophication-induced hypoxia is one of the primary anthropogenic threats to coastal ecosystems. Under hypoxic conditions, a deficit of O2 and a surplus of CO2 will concurrently decrease pH, yet studies of hypoxia have seldom considered the potential interactions with elevated pCO2 (reduced pH). Previous studies on gelatinous organisms concluded that they are fairly robust to low oxygen and reduced pH conditions individually, yet the combination of stressors has only been examined for ephyrae. The goals of this study were to determine the individual and interactive effects of hypoxia and elevated pCO2 on the asexual reproduction and aerobic respiration rates of polyps of the scyphozoan Aurelia aurita during a manipulative experiment that ran for 36 d. pCO2 and pO2 were varied on a diel basis to closely mimic the diel conditions observed in the field. Exposure to low dissolved oxygen (DO) reduced asexual budding of polyps by ~50% relative to control conditions. Under hypoxic conditions, rates of respiration were elevated during an initial acclimation period (until Day 8), but respiration rates did not differ between DO levels under prolonged exposure. There was no significant effect of increased pCO2 on either asexual reproduction or aerobic respiration, suggesting that elevated pCO2 (reduced pH) did not exacerbate the negative reproductive effects of hypoxia on A. aurita polyps.
Climate change effects on photosynthetic symbionts in the sea anemone Anthopleura xanthogrammica
Published 3 October 2017 Science ClosedTags: abundance, biological response, chemistry, cnidaria, community composition, field, morphology, multiple factors, North Atlantic, otherprocess, protists, temperature
The giant green sea anemone (Anthopleura xanthogrammica) inhabits the rocky intertidal zone in California and Oregon. Two photosynthetic algal symbionts, zooxanthellae and zoochlorellae, make these anemones important primary producers in the intertidal zone. This study investigated the effects of changes in temperature and pH on anemones and their symbionts over a natural environmental gradient along the coast of California and Oregon. Zoochlorellae responded negatively to warmer temperatures and positively to more acidic conditions, while zooxanthellae responded positively to warmer temperatures and lower pH. Temperature and pH did not significantly affect chlorophyll a concentrations or anemone protein biomass. Depending on the magnitude of future changes in ocean temperatures and acidity, changes in the ranges of the two types of symbionts and increased densities of sea anemones in the rocky intertidal could be expected to occur.
Ocean acidification alters zooplankton communities and increases top-down pressure of a cubozoan predator
Published 11 September 2017 Science ClosedTags: abundance, biological response, cnidaria, community composition, communityMF, crustaceans, laboratory, multiple factors, otherprocess, zooplankton
The composition of local ecological communities is determined by the members of the regional community that are able to survive the abiotic and biotic conditions of a local ecosystem. Anthropogenic activities since the industrial revolution have increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations, which have in turn decreased ocean pH and altered carbonate ion concentrations: so called ocean acidification (OA). Single-species experiments have shown how OA can dramatically affect zooplankton development, physiology and skeletal mineralization status, potentially reducing their defensive function and altering their predatory and antipredatory behaviors. This means that increased OA may indirectly alter the biotic conditions by modifying trophic interactions. We investigated how OA affects the impact of a cubozoan predator on their zooplankton prey, predominantly Copepoda, Pleocyemata, Dendrobranchiata, and Amphipoda. Experimental conditions were set at either current (pCO2 370 μatm) or end-of-the-century OA (pCO2 1,100 μatm) scenarios, crossed in an orthogonal experimental design with the presence/absence of the cubozoan predator Carybdea rastoni. The combined effects of exposure to OA and predation by C. rastoni caused greater shifts in community structure, and greater reductions in the abundance of key taxa than would be predicted from combining the effect of each stressor in isolation. Specifically, we show that in the combined presence of OA and a cubozoan predator, populations of the most abundant member of the zooplankton community (calanoid copepods) were reduced 27% more than it would be predicted based on the effects of these stressors in isolation, suggesting that OA increases the susceptibility of plankton to predation. Our results indicate that the ecological consequences of OA may be greater than predicted from single-species experiments, and highlight the need to understand future marine global change from a community perspective.
Symbiodinium mitigate the combined effects of hypoxia and acidification on a non-calcifying cnidarian
Published 28 April 2017 Science ClosedTags: biological response, cnidaria, communityMF, laboratory, mortality, multiple factors, oxygen, photosynthesis, physiology, protists, reproduction, respiration, South Pacific
Anthropogenic nutrient inputs enhance microbial respiration within many coastal ecosystems, driving concurrent hypoxia and acidification. During photosynthesis, Symbiodinium spp., the microalgal endosymbionts of cnidarians and other marine phyla, produce O2 and assimilate CO2, and thus potentially mitigate the exposure of the host to these stresses. However, such a role for Symbiodinium remains untested for non-calcifying cnidarians. We therefore contrasted the fitness of symbiotic and aposymbiotic polyps of a model host jellyfish (Cassiopea sp.) under reduced O2 (~2.09mgL−1) and pH (~pH 7.63) scenarios in a full factorial experiment. Host fitness was characterised as asexual reproduction and their ability to regulate internal pH and Symbiodinium performance characterised by maximum photochemical efficiency, chla content, and cell density. Acidification alone resulted in 58% more asexual reproduction of symbiotic polyps than aposymbiotic polyps (and enhanced Symbiodinium cell density) suggesting Cassiopea sp. fitness was enhanced by CO2-stimulated Symbiodinium photosynthetic activity. Indeed, greater CO2 drawdown (elevated pH) was observed within host tissues of symbiotic polyps under acidification regardless of O2 conditions. Hypoxia alone produced 22% fewer polyps than ambient conditions regardless of acidification and symbiont status, suggesting Symbiodinium photosynthetic activity did not mitigate its effects. Combined hypoxia and acidification, however, produced similar numbers of symbiotic polyps compared with aposymbiotic kept under ambient conditions, demonstrating that the presence of Symbiodinium was key for mitigating the combined effects of hypoxia and acidification on asexual reproduction. We hypothesise that this mitigation occurred because of reduced photorespiration under elevated CO2 conditions where increased net O2 production ameliorates oxygen debt. We show that Symbiodinium play an important role in facilitating enhanced fitness of Cassiopea sp. polyps, and perhaps also other non-calcifying cnidarian hosts, to the ubiquitous effects of ocean acidification. Importantly we highlight that symbiotic, non-calcifying cnidarians may be particularly advantaged in productive coastal waters that are subject to simultaneous hypoxia and acidification.
Ocean acidification effects on mesozooplankton community development: Results from a long-term mesocosm experiment
Published 19 April 2017 Science ClosedTags: abundance, BRcommunity, cnidaria, community composition, crustaceans, field, laboratory, mesocosms, morphology, North Atlantic, otherprocess, physiology, reproduction, respiration, zooplankton
Ocean acidification may affect zooplankton directly by decreasing in pH, as well as indirectly via trophic pathways, where changes in carbon availability or pH effects on primary producers may cascade up the food web thereby altering ecosystem functioning and community composition. Here, we present results from a mesocosm experiment carried out during 113 days in the Gullmar Fjord, Skagerrak coast of Sweden, studying plankton responses to predicted end-of-century pCO2 levels. We did not observe any pCO2 effect on the diversity of the mesozooplankton community, but a positive pCO2 effect on the total mesozooplankton abundance. Furthermore, we observed species-specific sensitivities to pCO2 in the two major groups in this experiment, copepods and hydromedusae. Also stage-specific pCO2 sensitivities were detected in copepods, with copepodites being the most responsive stage. Focusing on the most abundant species, Pseudocalanus acuspes, we observed that copepodites were significantly more abundant in the high-pCO2 treatment during most of the experiment, probably fuelled by phytoplankton community responses to high-pCO2 conditions. Physiological and reproductive output was analysed on P. acuspes females through two additional laboratory experiments, showing no pCO2 effect on females’ condition nor on egg hatching. Overall, our results suggest that the Gullmar Fjord mesozooplankton community structure is not expected to change much under realistic end-of-century OA scenarios as used here. However, the positive pCO2 effect detected on mesozooplankton abundance could potentially affect biomass transfer to higher trophic levels in the future.
Entering the Anthropocene: How ocean acidification and warmer temperatures affect the symbiotic sea anemone Exaiptasia pallida
Published 28 February 2017 Science ClosedTags: biological response, cnidaria, laboratory, morphology, multiple factors, performance, photosynthesis, phytoplankton, respiration, temperature
Here I report the effects of long-term elevated CO2 combined with two subsequent elevated temperature intervals on the model symbiotic anemone Exaiptasia pallida. A central goal of this thesis was to investigate how altered CO2 and temperature affect the symbiotic relationship while this anemone hosted three different strains of endosymbiotic dinoflagellates (Symbiodinium minutum, Symbiodinium A4a, and Symbiodinium A4b). Exposure to elevated CO2 (930μatm) alone for 42 days led to no significant changes in either the anemone or the algae physiological response, with the exception of some separation between the photosynthesis to respiration ratio of S. A4a and S. A4b control and treatment animals. Exposure to both elevated CO2 (930μatm) and a moderate elevation in temperature (29°C) for 49 days led to a significant increase in the net maximal photosynthesis (normalized to algal cell density) between the treatment and controls of all three holobionts. Exposure to both elevated CO2 (930μatm) and an even higher temperature (33°C) for up to 20 days led to a significant decrease in photobiology and algal cell density, along with visible bleaching in the S. minutum holobiont. All three holobionts displayed a significant decrease in the photosynthesis to respiration ratio, thereby providing evidence for temperature having a greater impact on the phototrophic response of these anemones. However, anemones harboring the two A4 Symbiodinium did not show as large of a negative response in photosystem II photochemistry when compared to anemones with S. minutum. The high temperature treatment also resulted in juvenile mortality in all three holobionts, with the greatest mortality seen in the S. minutum holobiont. The differential response to both elevated CO2 and elevated temperature between the three holobionts highlights the thermal sensitivity of the S. minutum symbiosis, and the thermal tolerance of the S. A4 holobionts. Thermal tolerance may enable these anemones to survive and thrive in future climate change conditions, while the effects of higher CO2 appear to be more neutral.
