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Ocean acidification: time for action

Published 21 November 2023 Newsletters and reports , Web sites and blogs Closed
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The role of action plans in tackling a mounting ocean crisis

INTRODUCTION

The world is waking up to the threat that ocean acidification (OA)—a rise in the acidity of seawater caused by excess carbon dioxide entering it from the atmosphere—poses to marine ecosystems and to the coastal economies that depend on them. Since OA’s damaging effects on shellfish were first documented 15 years ago, research organisations have mobilised to collect, on an ongoing basis, huge volumes of OA-related data from the world’s oceans. Based on those data, as well as data gathered in coastal areas, scientists have published a wealth of studies examining the causes and effects of OA.

Environmental advocacy groups championing ocean health, charitable foundations and intergovernmental organisations have built on this work to raise global awareness of OA, fund wider research into it and prod governments around the world to take concrete actions to combat it.

Pacific pioneers: Setting the global standard for OA

National action plans are highly desirable, but it is state governments on the US Pacific coast that have set the standard of OA action for the rest of the world to follow.

Governments, however, have been slow to rise to this challenge. Although many have voiced concerns about OA and expressed an intention to fight it through international mechanisms, at the time of writing less than a dozen have published dedicated action plans. These document specific measures governments will take—or are taking—to advance understanding and the domestic response to OA.

The experts we interviewed for this report are strong advocates for OA action plans. Measures to address OA have a vital place in wider climate change and other marine management initiatives, but a dedicated OA plan stands a better chance of cementing the ambition and commitment of a country, region or locality to actively address localised manifestations of OA and turn back the tide. And while some non-government organisations (NGOs) and science institutions have issued OA action plans of their own, none will carry as much weight as those led by governments.

National action plans are highly desirable, but it is state governments on the US Pacific coast that have set the standard of OA action for the rest of the world to follow. It is here that scientists first registered the deadly impacts of OA on marine life and the threat to coastal economies and jobs. That emergency and follow-on research findings led governments in the region to commit unequivocally to combat OA with the help of dedicated, detailed and well-resourced action plans.

In examining governments’ and other entities’ progress on mobilising against OA, this report finds that existing North American action plans offer useful examples and insights for other jurisdictions. Far from all governments will be able to base their plans on the same depth of research or call on the same resources to draft them. But by including in their plans elements such as a vision of success, timelines, assignment of ownership, and a mandate for periodic review and updating, governments can call upon more resources and put their OA action plans on a firm footing.

WHY ACTION IS VITAL

Ocean acidification is a growing threat to many forms of marine life and to the communities that rely on them for food, jobs and economic wellbeing. OA is a direct result of the growing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions generated by human activity. Up to 30% of carbon released into the atmosphere each year is absorbed by the ocean, which helps to mitigate global warming. But the ocean’s ability to sequester carbon cannot keep pace with rising emission volumes.1 The result is a decline in the pH level of seawater and a rise in its acidity.

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Report citation: Turner J., Braby C., Findlay H., Widdicombe S., Kobayashi M. & Fujii M., 2023. Ocean acidification: time for action. The role of action plans in tackling a mounting ocean crisis. Back to Blue, Economist Impact, The Nippon Foundation. Report.

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Earth beyond six of nine planetary boundaries

Published 15 November 2023 Science Closed
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This planetary boundaries framework update finds that six of the nine boundaries are transgressed, suggesting that Earth is now well outside of the safe operating space for humanity. Ocean acidification is close to being breached, while aerosol loading regionally exceeds the boundary. Stratospheric ozone levels have slightly recovered. The transgression level has increased for all boundaries earlier identified as overstepped. As primary production drives Earth system biosphere functions, human appropriation of net primary production is proposed as a control variable for functional biosphere integrity. This boundary is also transgressed. Earth system modeling of different levels of the transgression of the climate and land system change boundaries illustrates that these anthropogenic impacts on Earth system must be considered in a systemic context.

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Dive industry perspectives on threats to coral reefs: a comparative study across four Asia-Pacific countries

Published 15 November 2023 Science Closed
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The combined effects of climate change, marine tourism and other stressors threaten the ecological and economic sustainability of coral reefs. This study investigates dive industry stakeholder awareness of the threats to coral reefs through structured interviews with Dive Masters, company managers and marine management agencies in Vietnam, Australia, Malaysia and Indonesia. Stakeholders from all locations have observed degradation of local reefs. Destructive fishing was identified as the principal threat in all regions except Australia. Most participants identified threats from climate change and marine tourism. There was a lack of awareness about ocean acidification by all participants from Maluku, Indonesia. However, ocean acidification could make coral more fragile and, therefore, vulnerable to diver-induced damage. The majority of Dive Masters across all regions provide pre-dive briefings to reduce diver impacts and participate in environmental activities to protect local reefs. Stakeholders in three regions thought there was capacity to expand the local dive industry. However, in Nha Trang Vietnam, most industry stakeholders thought they were at, or exceeded, carrying capacity, whereas marine management employees thought there was room to expand. This study highlights an opportunity to improve diver education on the vulnerability of coral to damage in acidifying oceans. This study also identifies various non-regulatory and regulatory strategies used to reduce diver impacts, emphasising the value of multi-national knowledge sharing between the dive industry and regulatory agencies for adaptive management.

HIGHLIGHTS

  • Dive industry stakeholders are concerned about threats to coral reefs.
  • Impacts from diving activities were recognised in three of four regions.
  • There was great discrepancy between regions in the awareness of ocean acidification.
  • Most dive industry stakeholders are engaged in marine conservation activities.
  • Some marine managers and industry stakeholders had discrepant views on diver carrying capacity
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Scuba divers, coral reefs, and knowledge of ocean acidification

Published 8 August 2023 Science Closed
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Ocean acidification (OA) poses a threat to coral reefs by increasing the fragility of susceptible corals to physical damage. As such, the impacts of dive tourism are likely to be exacerbated under acidified conditions. While evidence exists on the impacts of OA, research is scant on scuba divers’ knowledge of OA. The present study explored scuba divers (N = 75) awareness of threats to coral reefs, and factors which are important to the dive experience via an online survey. Responses revealed participants were least aware of OA than other threats to coral reefs. Almost half the participants had a basic understanding of OA, but a high level of concern about its impacts, highlighting an education opportunity for these already ‘concerned’ divers. Factors important to their dive experience included sites being located in a marine protected area / managed for conservation, and high diversity of coral with good quality and minimal disturbance. The findings indicated there are economic opportunities associated with good environmental management at coral reef dive sites, including through preferential site selection and willingness to pay a conservation levy. Recommendations for OA education and awareness initiatives and other regulatory and non-regulatory management strategies are discussed.

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Anthropogenic and ecology research indicators of top commercial fish species in the Baltic Sea: review

Published 19 June 2023 Science Closed
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In many parts of the world, morality caused as a result of fishing actives is the only influencer affecting the status of top commercial stocks. This however is not the case in the Baltic Sea, which has a multitude of other processes that influence fish stock dynamics. This paper compartmentalises 248 publications that consider the cumulative effects and trade-offs some of the biggest anthropogenic and ecology stressors (temperature change, hypoxia, eutrophication, nutrient pollution acidification, low salinity and food-web dynamics) have on the ecology of top commercial fish species in the Baltic Sea (cod, sprat, whiting, herring, flounder and plaice). The results illustrate the extent of academic research that can be applied to commercial fisheries knowledge in the Baltic Sea and identifies which pressures have the greatest negative impacts for which species. In addition, the findings demonstrate how well individual fish stocks have adapted to the changing environmental conditions of the Baltic Sea. In doing so, the review illustrates the next challenges and underlines what fish will likely dominate in the future and which will struggle. With increased natural hazards, top commercial fish species have reacted differently, depending on the region and adaptive capabilities. In most cases, species in the Clupeidae family have adapted the best to their new surroundings, flatfish resilience is varied, whilst fish in the Gadidae family are finding the Baltic Sea too hostile.

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Broaden research on ocean alkalinity enhancement to better characterize social impacts

Published 15 June 2023 Science Closed
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Ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE) is being considered as a way of achieving large-scale removals of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Research on the risks and benefits of different OAE approaches is expanding apace, but it remains difficult to anticipate and appraise the potential impacts to human communities that OAE might generate. These impacts, however, will be critical to evaluating the viability of specific OAE projects. This paper draws on the authors’ involvement in interdisciplinary assessment of OAE (1) to identify the factors that currently limit characterization of potential social impacts and (2) to propose ways of reconfiguring OAE research to better consider these.

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Marine macroinvertebrate ecosystem services under changing conditions of seagrasses and mangroves

Published 5 June 2023 Science Closed
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Highlights

  • Overfishing and climate change show potential effects on MMI ES.
  • MMI regulating ES can be quantified using species richness and functional traits.
  • Digital platforms are valuable tools to retrieve data but have limitations.
  • Baseline data and information on environmental changes and MMI ES is provided.

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the impact of changing environmental conditions on MMI ES in seagrasses and mangroves. We used data from satellite and biodiversity platforms combined with field data to explore the links between ecosystem pressures (habitat conversion, overexploitation, climate change), conditions (environmental quality, ecosystem attributes), and MMI ES (provisioning, regulation, cultural). Both seagrass and mangrove extents increased significantly since 2016. While sea surface temperature showed no significant annual variation, sea surface partial pressure CO2, height above sea level and pH presented significant changes. Among the environmental quality variables only silicate, PO4 and phytoplankton showed significant annual varying trends. The MMI food provisioning increased significantly, indicating overexploitation that needs urgent attention. MMI regulation and cultural ES did not show significant trends overtime. Our results show that MMI ES are affected by multiple factors and their interactions can be complex and non-linear. We identified key research gaps and suggested future directions for research. We also provided relevant data that can support future ES assessments.

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New Zealand’s media and the crisis in the ocean: news norms and scientific urgency

Published 26 May 2023 Science Closed
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1. To date, no studies have analysed New Zealand’s media coverage of ocean-related threats, potential harms, or sources used for their coverage. This is concerning given that marine media coverage is linked to public support, awareness of conservation issues, and policymaking.

2. This research helps fill this gap, examining all ocean-related articles 2 weeks before and after the 2019 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report’s release on the oceans and cryosphere.

3. It first analyses the media’s reporting of threats, potential harms arising from the threats, and the sources on whom journalists relied and gave voice, then it tests a report of global significance for influence on reportage.

4. Second, it examines whether the threats covered by media align with scientists’ main concerns (from the IPCC report and a survey of New Zealand scientists).

5. In contrast to previous studies on media sources for environmental conservation, this study found that journalists in New Zealand relied considerably on scientists as key sources. However, it found that coverage of ocean-related threats did not match scientists’ main concerns.

6. Finally, the research found that the IPCC report appeared to influence coverage in two areas: reporting on threats to island nations, and multiple potential harms. Otherwise, New Zealand’s media covered the IPCC report as any other news item, reporting on it and then shifting to other matters.

7. The lack of coverage on primary scientific concerns and that a globally significant momentous report did not dramatically impact the marine media landscape is problematic for conservation of ocean habitats, species, and broader environmental and societal outcomes owing to poor understandings by policymakers and the public, which can lead to inaction and policy failures.

8. The potential reasons and solutions to advance communication of marine conservation issues for a more educated and mobilized public are explored.

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Investigating the environmental sustainability of a seabass and seabream aquaculture system in Portugal based on life cycle and nexus approaches

Published 25 May 2023 Science Closed
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Highlights

  • A Portuguese seabass and seabream aquaculture system was analysed.
  • A climate change impact equal to 2.88 kg CO2-eq/kg MSF was found.
  • The aquaculture system depends 59 % on non-renewable resources.
  • In resource terms, 504.1 MJex are needed per kg of protein.
  • Potential strategies are given to improve environmental sustainability.

Abstract

Aquaculture plays an essential role in supplying animal-source food and protein worldwide, in this way contributing to several sustainable development goals. Notwithstanding this, the aquaculture sector’s long-term environmental sustainability is a major concern due to overall environmental impacts. To date, and to the best of the authors’ knowledge, assessments of aquaculture systems in Portugal from an environmental perspective, and the nexus between resource consumption and nutrition issues, are still lacking. This study bridges this gap by analysing an aquaculture system in Portugal in a comprehensive manner by applying and combining life cycle assessment and resources–protein nexus approaches. The overall results highlight feed as the main factor responsible for the total impact in all impact categories selected, ranging from 74 % to 98 %. Climate change impact results in 2.88 kg CO2-eq per kg of medium-size fish (functional unit). The resources–protein nexus shows that 504.1 MJex is needed to obtain 1 kg of edible protein, with a high dependency on non-renewable resources (59 %), mainly oil by-product fuels used in feed production. After identifying environmental hotspots, potential strategies to be adopted such as resource consumption reduction, eco-certification and ecosystem-based management are suggested, in this way ensuring long-term aquaculture production and environmental sustainability.

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Ocean acidification as a hyperobject: mediating acidic milieus in the anthropocene

Published 23 May 2023 Science Closed
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Through the usage of Timothy Morton’s hyperobjects (2013) as a heuristic, this essay aims to portray how Ocean Acidification can be read as a hyperobject affecting tropical seawaters and beyond. Furthermore, it illustrates how the arts and humanities, through their hermeneutical gaze, might help us grasp Ocean Acidification as a hyperobject and the wide array of other objects that act upon each other in such acidic oceanic waters. In this task, the article will close-read the Underwater Woman set of pictures by Christine Ren (2018) understanding the interpretation of art as a tool to reconnect cognition and emotion to move from the understanding of a crisis to the feeling of such crisis. Finally, it aims to shed light upon the implications arising from considering Ocean Acidification as a hyperobject. By connecting the theoretical, visual and political in the same narrative, this essay highlights the transformative potential of interpretation and thinking through hyperobjects. With this, the challenges of the Anthropocene are put at the forefront, situating specific events and problematics in a planetary scale.

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Applications of ecosystem risk assessment in federal fisheries to advance ecosystem-based fisheries management

Published 11 May 2023 Newsletters and reports Closed
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Executive Summary

Managing U.S. federal fisheries often requires considering complex interactions among fisheries, protected species, habitats, and other ecosystem components, including humans and climate. In addition, management that focuses on individual species can experience undesirable and unexpected changes due to unaccounted for impacts of climate or other ecosystem factors. Regional fishery management councils (Councils) need ways to efficiently process these interactions and the potential impacts they may have on meeting Council management objectives. One tool that can help with this is the ecosystem-level risk assessment (ERA), also called ecological risk assessments or vulnerability assessments. ERAs are management decision tools that can assist Councils in integrating large amounts of ecosystem information in a standardized, yet flexible and transparent way to help identify issues to prioritize in science or management. The purpose of this document is to share applied results from five regional case studies of ERA. The case studies cover different geographies illustrate how Councils can systematically approach ERA to help address current challenges and advance ecosystem-based fisheries management. To demonstrate the versatility of this tool, we organized the case studies by three different applications in the adaptive fishery management process: screening, prioritization, and evaluation. We emphasized broader ERAs that analyzed a number of different ecosystem drivers in one assessment. To improve the process of incorporating ecosystem information into fishery management decisions, we summarize key takeaways from the case studies. Finally, we provide additional recommendations for optimizing ERA use at the end of this report.

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Quantitative assessment of the response of seawater environmental quality to marine protection policies under regional economic development – a case study of Xiamen Bay, China

Published 10 May 2023 Science Closed
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Xiamen is the epitome of having steady economic growth and non-negligible environmental stress over decades. Several restoration programs have been applied to address the conflicts between heavy environmental pressures and human activities, but the response of current coastal protection policies to the marine environment remains to be assessed. Therefore, to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of marine conservation policies under regional economic growth in Xiamen, quantitative techniques including elasticity analysis and dummy variable regression models were applied. Here we show the potential relationship between seawater quality (pH, COD, DIN and DRP) and economic growth including Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross Ocean Product (GOP), to evaluate the ongoing related policies by using over 10 years of data (2007–2018). According to our estimates, a GDP growth rate of 8.5% represents a stable economic climate that is favorable for the overall rehabilitation of the local coastal environment. The results of the quantitative research indicate a strong relationship between economic development and seawater quality, with marine protection regulations serving as the direct cause. As GDP growth and pH are significantly positively correlated (coef. = 0.8139, p = 0.012), ocean acidification has decreased over the last decade. With an inversely proportional correlation with GDP (coef. = 0.8456, p = 0.002) and GOP (coef. = 0.8046, p = 0.005), the trend in COD concentrations effectively meets the targets of current pollution control legislation. By using a dummy variable regression model, we found that legislation is the most effective way in seawater recovery in the GOP section, and positive externalities of marine protection frameworks are also estimated. Meanwhile, it is predicted that the negative effects from the non-GOP section will gradually affect the coastal environmental quality gradually. An overall framework for controlling marine pollutant discharges, giving equal attention to maritime and non-maritime anthropogenic activities should be promoted and updated.

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Aquaculture mapping in the context of climate change

Published 24 April 2023 Science Closed
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The development of aquaculture is facing unprecedented pressures from climate change, resource constraints, environmental pollution, energy consumption, and other factors. For coping with these challenges and for ensuring sustainable development of aquaculture, spatial planning in aquaculture activities become more and more important. An ecosystem-based approach for aquaculture mapping is needed to strategically and comprehensively balance the location, aquaculture type, and stakeholders’ interests. In this chapter, we aim to describe the definition, key steps, and methods of aquaculture zoning, especially in the context of climate change (e.g., global warming, ocean acidification, hypoxia/anoxia, sea level rising, and extreme events). We also provide two case studies of aquaculture mapping in China.

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What conservation strategies support the adaptive capacity of coastal ecosystems in three island states facing a changing climate in Micronesia?

Published 20 April 2023 Science Closed
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Coastal ecosystems, such as coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds, are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The degradation and loss of these ecosystems, stemming from the increased impacts of climate change-related drivers, threaten the well-being of island communities in Micronesia, as they are very reliant on and connected with these coastal ecosystems. Supporting the adaptive capacity of ecosystems through climate adaptive conservation, and thus better equipping them to recover from and adapt to the potential impacts, in turn reduces the vulnerability of the social-ecological system. This thesis identified five main climate change-related drivers that impact coastal systems across three selected states in Micronesia. First, based on a conceptual social-ecological systems (SES) framework, a literature review and analysis were conducted to identify and select three ecosystem adaptive capacity (AC) elements: Heterogeneity, connectivity, and ecosystem functioning. Building on that, second, a literature review aided the identification of climate adaptive conservation strategies and related actions that can support the adaptive capacity of ecosystems. Following a qualitative content analysis, eight climate adaptive conservation strategies and 26 activities were selected and categorized. Third, the extent of (1) the strategy effectiveness, (2) their integration in conservation policy and planning documents, and (3) their implementation on a national scale were evaluated through a semi-quantitative expert consultation in each of the selected states, exemplified with coral reefs.

The findings from this research showed that while the climate adaptive strategies and activities were considered effective in supporting the adaptive capacity of coral reefs in Micronesia, the extent of their implementation ranked low. Strategies, such as “Addressing non-climatic drivers” were considered highly effective, however their implementation fell comparably short. Contrary, targeting heterogeneity was considered of least importance. Thus, as their regional implementation ranked low, the ability of the strategies to support coral adaptive capacity was limited for all three countries. Particularly, the upscaling and mainstreaming of these strategies was considered crucial by the experts. Therefore, this research proposed to prioritize addressing non-climatic drivers, supporting coral reef restoration, and recommended to integrate communities in the design of climate adaptive conservation. Further to apply actionable co-produced science to advance the evidence base and applicability of the strategies in supporting ecosystem AC.

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Resilience of a giant clam subsistence fishery in Kiribati to climate change

Published 20 April 2023 Science Closed
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Changes in sea surface temperature have historically impacted the habitat of giant clams in Kiribati. In many islands of Kiribati, the four species of giant clam have largely withstood these environmental changes, through adaptive responses to anthropogenic pressures. The Kiribati giant clam fishery is a data-limited multi-species fishery, so in adopting and applying a comprehensive resilience framework to highlight attributes conferring and limiting resilience across the ecological, governance, and socio-economic aspects of the fishery we used knowledge co-production and the precautionary principle approach to better inform place-based attempts to operationalise resilience measures. We found that the resilience of the fishery to marine heatwaves and ocean acidification, as highlighted by local stakeholders, will depend on the ability of fisheries stakeholders to act collectively, with flexibility, to implement adaptive governance. Climate change, coupled with human impacts, have reduced ecological resilience in the urbanised island of South Tarawa, in contrast to the more remote or sparsely populated islands. In South Tarawa, governance and social processes are less flexible, leading to declines in the local subsistence clam fishery. Conversely, on several remote outer islands, where the social-ecological system has shown promise in combating these anthropogenic influences (e.g., through adaptive community-based fisheries management), the ecological resilience has improved, and the subsistence clam fishery has persisted. Our case study demonstrates the importance of a participatory approach and local knowledge when assessing climate resilience and identifies pathways of resilience in other small-scale fisheries, especially when data are limited.

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How university students assess the planetary boundaries: a global empirical study

Published 13 April 2023 Science Closed
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Highlights

  • We studied students’ perceptions of the planetary boundaries in 35 countries.
  • Using a spectral clustering algorithm, countries were grouped into 5 clusters.
  • Different indicators were used to explain the cluster result.
  • Prosperity, natural resources and forest area provide explanations for the results.
  • Decision makers should take steps to improve perceptions of planetary boundaries.

Abstract

In order to effectively address global environmental problems, it is important that future decision-makers in society are aware of the safe operation space for humans, which is limited by the planetary boundaries. Until now, however, there has been a lack of international studies examining how the planet’s boundaries are perceived. In this study, we investigated how students of environmental and sustainability studies in 35 countries (n = 4140) assess the planetary boundaries. Based on the rating, using spectral clustering, the 35 countries were assigned to five different clusters. Four indicators (Human Development Index, Legatum Prosperity Index, Natural Resources Income and Forest Area) were used to provide explanations for the clustering result. The indices allow a distinction between the clusters and provide initial explanations for the clustering. The results provide important insights for today’s decision-makers, as possible measures for action in the individual countries can be derived from the findings.

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Impact of global change on oceanic dissolved carbon chemistry and acidification: a review

Published 12 April 2023 Science Closed
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Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide and temperature, decrease marine pH and rising dissolved organic carbon (DOC), causing extensive shifts in ocean water carbon chemistry with forecasts of long-term ecosystem impacts. This study aimed to carry out a systematic review and try to find out the actual chemistry, spatial variation at a global scale, future prediction of these natural and human-induced changes, and how this situation impacts the marine ecosystem and green economy. Literature proved that Antarctica and southern shallow polar ocean and any seaside area are particularly vulnerable to marine acidification and disturbed DOC cycle. Based on over a hundred investigations, the study observed that (a) marine acidification and DOC cycle are basically difficult-to-understand phenomena, (b) these two realities are consistent with each other and with climate change, (c) the potency of these threats is very altitudinal, periodic, and stratified (d) the mood of global change stressors on these two facts in the future ocean is unpredictable. It was found that over the past half-century, the acidity of the surface ocean has even now increased by almost 30%, and by 2100 it will increase to 150. Such a major change in ocean chemistry will have and is already having widespread consequences for marine organisms.

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Oregon shellfish farmers: perceptions of stressors, adaptive strategies, and policy linkages

Published 3 February 2023 Science Closed
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Highlights

  • Interviews were conducted with fifteen (79%) of oyster farmers in Oregon.
  • Farmers are most impacted by environmental, economic, and regulatory stressors.
  • Shellfish farmers had matching adaptive strategies to address these stressors.
  • Flexible aquaculture policies can help support these strategies.

Abstract

In the United States, domestic oyster aquaculture production is insufficient to meet national demand, thus creating a reliance on international oyster imports for consumption. West coast shellfish farmers are threatened by climate change, including ocean acidification as well as socioeconomic challenges such as labor availability. To expand and enhance United States oyster production, and support domestic food security and livelihoods, a better understanding of the limitations that oyster farmers’ experience, and corresponding pathways forward for adaptation is needed. Through semi-structured interviews conducted with commercial Oregon shellfish farmers, we assess the environmental, economic, social and regulatory stressors impacting oyster growing operations, and the corresponding adaptive strategies employed or envisioned by aquaculture farmers. We find farmers are most impacted by environmental stressors (nuisance species that interact with oysters or oyster habitat negatively), followed by regulatory and economic stressors (permitting and regulations and labor availability). Farmers perceived ocean acidification as a risk, but primarily at the oyster larva stage rather than the juvenile or adult grow-out stage. Examples of farmer-identified adaptive strategies included streamlining permitting and regulations, incentivizing employee retention, and having flexibility in culture type to avoid nuisance species and other environmental stressors. An increase in targeted outreach related to aquaculture policies and engagement with industry, scientists, managers, and policy-makers could facilitate policies that support these and other adaptive strategies.

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Report on ocean acidification monitoring in the Western Indian Ocean

Published 11 January 2023 Science Closed
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Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from human activities are largely absorbed by the ocean, accounting for about one-third of the total emissions over the past 200 years from the combustion of fossil fuels, the production of cement, and changes in land use (Sabine et al., 2004). The uptake of CO2 by the ocean benefits society by moderating the rate of climate change but also causes unprecedented changes to ocean chemistry, decreasing the pH of the water and leading to a suite of chemical changes collectively known as ocean acidification. Like climate change, ocean acidification is a growing global problem that will intensify with continued CO2 emissions and has the potential to change marine ecosystems and affect benefits to society.

The chemistry of the ocean is changing at an unprecedented rate and magnitude due to anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions; the rate of change exceeds that which has occurred for at least the past hundreds of thousands of years. Unless anthropogenic CO2 emissions are substantially curbed, or atmospheric CO2 is controlled by some other means, the average pH of the ocean will continue to fall. Ocean acidification has demonstrated impacts on many marine organisms. While the ultimate consequences are still unknown, there is a risk of ecosystem change that may threaten coral reefs, fisheries, protected species, and other natural resources of value to society.

Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, the average pH of ocean surface waters has decreased by about 0.1 units, from about 8.2 to 8.1. Model predictions show an additional 0.2–0.3 drop in pH by the end of the century, even under optimistic scenarios. Perhaps more important is that the rate of this change exceeds any known change in ocean chemistry for at least 800,000 years. The major changes in ocean chemistry caused by increasing atmospheric CO2 are well understood and can be precisely calculated, despite some uncertainty resulting from biological feedback processes.

However, the direct biological effects of ocean acidification are less certain and will vary among organisms, with some coping well and others not at all. The long-term consequences of ocean acidification for marine biota are unknown, but changes in many ecosystems and the services they provide to society appear likely based on current understanding.

In response to these concerns, WIOMSA launched ocean acidification projects in six countries: Kenya, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, South Africa and Tanzania, with the support of the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency and institutional partners in the WIO region. The research provides a baseline that will foster the development of an integrated science strategy for ocean acidification monitoring, research and impact assessment. It presents a review of the current state of knowledge on ocean acidification in the WIO region and identifies the gaps in information required to improve understanding and address the consequences of ocean acidification.

The report consists of seven chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the subject of ocean acidification and chapters 2 to 7 summarize the esults of ocean acidification monitoring in the six countries that participated in the four-year monitoring project. Lessons learned and recommendations are presented for each country.

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Ocean acidification and sea warming-toward a better comprehension of its consequences

Published 4 January 2023 Science Closed
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Climate change, rigorously heralded more than thirty years ago as a real threat, has become the most pressing and pernicious global problem for the entire planet. In conjunction with local impacts such as fishing, eutrophication or the invasion of alien species, to give just a few examples, the acidification of the oceans and the warming of the sea began to show its effects more than twenty years ago. These signals were ignored at the time by the governing bodies and by the economic stakeholders, who now see how we must run to repair the huge inflicted damage. Today, different processes are accelerating, and the thermodynamic machine has definitely deteriorated. We see, for example, that the intensity and magnitude of hurricanes and typhoons has increased. Most models announce more devastation of flash floods and a decomposition in the water cycle, which are factors directly affecting ecosystems all over the world. Important advances are also observed in the forecasting of impacts of atmospheric phenomena in coastal areas with more and more accurate models. Rising temperatures and acidification already affect many organisms, impacting the entire food chain. All organisms, pelagic or benthic, will be affected directly or indirectly by climate change at all depths and in all the latitudes. The impact will be non-homogeneous. In certain areas it will be more drastic than in others, and the visualization of such impacts is already ongoing. Some things may be very evident, such as coral mortalities in tropical areas or in the surface waters of the Mediterranean, while others may be less visible, such as changes in microelement availability affecting plankton productivity. In fact, primary productivity in microalgae, macroalgae and phanerogams is already beginning to feel the impact of warmer, stratified and nutrient-poor waters in many parts of the planet. Nutrients are becoming less available, temperature is rising above certain tolerance limits and water movement (turbulence) may change in certain areas favoring certain species of microplankton instead of others. All these mechanisms, together with light availability (which, in principle, is not drastically changing except for the cloudiness), affect the growth of the organisms that can photosynthesize and produce oxygen and organic matter for the rest of the trophic chain. That shift in productivity completely changes the rest of the food chain. In the Arctic or Antarctic, the problem is slightly different. Life depends on the dynamics of ice that is subject to seasonal changes. But winter solidification and summer dissolution is undergoing profound changes, causing organisms that are adapted to that rhythm of ice change to be under pressure. The change is more evident in the North Pole, but is also visible in the South pole, where the sea ice cover has also dramatically changed. In the chapter there is also a mention about the general problem of the water currents and their profound change do greenhouse gas effects. The warming of the waters and their influence on the marine currents are also already affecting the different ocean habitats. The slowdown of certain processes is causing an acceleration in the deoxygenation of the deepest areas and therefore an impact on the fragile communities of cold corals that populate large areas of our planet. Many organisms will be affected in their dispersion and their ability to colonize new areas or maintain a connection between different populations. The rapid adaptations to these new changes are apparent. Nature is on its course of restart from these new changes, but in this transitional phase the complexity and interactions that have taken thousands or millions of years to form can fade away until a new normal is consolidated.

Continue reading ‘Ocean acidification and sea warming-toward a better comprehension of its consequences’

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