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Policy brief: Deep ocean climate intervention impacts – ocean alkalinity enhancement

Published 15 March 2022 Newsletters and reports Closed
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The Concept:

The ocean contains 50 times as much carbon as the atmosphere and acts as a natural thermostat. Based on natural weathering that occurs on geological time scales, ocean alkalinity enhancement is intended to speed the process of removing CO2 from the atmosphere and reducing ocean acidification by increasing seawater alkalinity, the capacity of a solution to neutralize acid. This approach transforms CO2 into bicarbonate (HCO3-), carbonate (CO32-) and to a much smaller extent hydroxide (OH-) anions. The former are charge balanced by cations other than H+ (GESAMP, 2019), increasing pH and causing more drawdown of CO2 from the atmosphere (Gagern et al., 2019; Fig. 2; NASEM, 2021; Fig. 1). Ocean alkalinity enhancement aims to increase the alkalinity of the oceans by either:

  • adding calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to the ocean from limestone rocks (Renforth and Henderson, 2017); calcium silicates (Ca₂O₄Si) from rocks, construction waste or desalination waste, slaked lime (calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2; e.g., Caserini et al., 2021; Butenschön et al., 2021) as well as magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2)) (Ocean Visions Road Map – https://www2.oceanvisions.org/roadmaps/ocean-alkalinity-enhancement/) or
  • using electrochemistry – technologies for carbon dioxide removal from seawater, sometimes called “direct ocean capture” (House et al., 2007; Rau, 2008; Rau et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2015; La Plante et al., 2021). These techniques capture and remove dissolved inorganic carbon from seawater (either as CO2 gas or as calcium carbonate), and/or produce a CO2-reactive chemical base, e.g., sodium hydroxide (NaOH), that can be distributed in the surface ocean to ultimately consume atmospheric CO2 and convert it to long-lived, dissolved, alkaline bicarbonate (Ocean Visions Road Map –https://www2.oceanvisions.org/roadmaps/electrochemical-cdr/).

Alkalinity enhancement approaches will likely start in coastal areas more affected with ocean acidification, and will capture and store carbon dioxide predominantly in the form of bicarbonate. This will result in increases in pH and alkalinity as well as the aragonite saturation state.

Fig. 1. Approach and impact of ocean alkalinity addition. From NASEM, 2021

Key Points

  • Using silicate or carbonate minerals to achieve gigatonne scale CO2 removal would require very large quantities of these materials to be mined, crushed and distributed across the ocean.
  • While mineral-induced changes in the form and flux of surface production might be reflected at the deep-sea floor, effects on the deep sea would mainly be in the long-term due to the ocean over turning circulation unless materials were directly placed in the deep sea. However, deep sea biota that have near-surface-dwelling larval stages could be adversely affected.
  • The environmental effects of electrochemical alkalinization techniques on the deep sea is unclear except where acid material would be discharged directly into the deep sea. This could result in potential lethal and sub-lethal effects on organisms close to the discharge zone.
  • Deposition of alkaline material into the ocean could be governed by the London Protocol.

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DOSI, 15 March 2022. Policy brief.

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Canada’s internet-connected ocean

Published 15 February 2022 Science Closed
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Over fifteen years ago, Ocean Networks Canada (ONC) began with the world’s first large-scale, interactive, real-time portal into the ocean, bringing continuous, real-time data to the surface for applications in scientific research, societal benefits, and supporting Canada’s ocean industry. This marked the dawn of the Internet-connected ocean, enabling a more fulsome understanding of the ocean through ocean intelligence. These open data have improved our ability to monitor and understand our changing ocean offshore all three coasts of Canada, thanks to diversity of sensor systems to monitor earthquakes and tsunamis, deep sea biodiversity, whales, hydrothermal vents, neutrinos, ocean noise, ocean acidification, forensics experiments, and the impact of climate change, including sea ice thinning in the Arctic. This pioneering approach began in the late 1990s, when scientists began developing a new way of doing ocean science that was no longer limited by weather and ship-time. They imagined a permanent presence in the ocean of sensors to allow a continuous flow of ocean data via the Internet. This big science began to take shape early this century, when a partnership between United States and Canadian institutions was established. ONC evolved out of this international collaboration with seed funding from the Canada Foundation for Innovation, while in the United States, the Ocean Observatories Initiative (OOI) was funded. ONC works closely with OOI on that span the countries’ west coast border. Recently similar observing initiatives in Europe have begun, led by EMSO, which now has a close collaboration with ONC as an Associate Member.

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Conserving threatened species during rapid environmental change: using biological responses to inform management strategies of giant clams

Published 3 February 2022 Science Closed
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Giant clams are threatened by overexploitation for human consumption, their valuable shells and the aquarium trade. Consequently, these iconic coral reef megafauna are extinct in some former areas of their range and are included in the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. Now, giant clams are also threatened by rapid environmental change from both a suite of local and regional scale stressors and global change, including climate change, global warming, marine heatwaves and ocean acidification. The interplay between local- to regional-scale and global-scale drivers is likely to cause an array of lethal and sub-lethal effects on giant clams, potentially limiting their depth distribution on coral reefs and decreasing suitable habitat area within natural ranges of species. Global change stressors, pervasive both in unprotected and protected areas, threaten to diminish conservation efforts to date. International efforts urgently need to reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid lethal and sub-lethal effects of global change on giant clams. Meanwhile, knowledge of giant clam physiological and ecological responses to local–regional and global stressors could play a critical role in conservation strategies of these threatened species through rapid environmental change. Further work on how biological responses translate into habitat requirements as global change progresses, selective breeding for resilience, the capacity for rapid adaptive responses of the giant clam holobiont and valuing tourism potential, including recognizing giant clams as a flagship species for coral reefs, may help improve the prospects of these charismatic megafauna over the coming decades.

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Spatiotemporal variability in kelp forest and seagrass ecosystems: can local biogeochemical modification combat acidification stress?

Published 23 December 2021 Science Closed
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Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have driven widespread ocean acidification (OA). OA has reduced surface ocean pH by at least 0.1 pH units since the beginning of the industrial era and global models forecast a further decrease of 0.3 to 0.4 pH units by the end of the century. Submerged aquatic vegetation, such as kelp forests and seagrass beds, has the potential to locally ameliorate OA by removing CO2 during photosynthesis and storing it as fixed carbon. Thus, understanding the contribution of these habitats to local biogeochemistry is essential to inform coastal management and policy, especially as the impacts of anthropogenic climate change become more prevalent. The following work describes high resolution spatiotemporal variability in seagrass and kelp forest biogeochemistry (Chapters 1 and 2) and in the surface canopy extent of a giant kelp forest (Chapter 3).

In order to understand the contributions of kelp forest and seagrass metabolism to their respective local biogeochemistry, we must determine the natural variability in these systems and disentangle the physical and biological drivers of local biogeochemical variability. In Chapter 1, I deployed an extensive instrument array in Monterey Bay, CA, inside and outside of a kelp forest to assess the degree to which kelp locally ameliorates present-day acidic conditions, which we expect to be further exacerbated by OA. Interactions between upwelling exposure, internal bores, and biological production shaped the local biogeochemistry inside and outside of the kelp forest. Significantly elevated pH, attributed to kelp canopy productivity, was observed at the surface inside the kelp forest. This modification was largely limited to a narrow band of surface water, implying that while kelp forests have the potential to locally ameliorate ocean acidification stress, this benefit may largely be limited to organisms living in the upper part of the canopy. In Chapter 2, I quantified net community production (NCP) over a mixed seagrass-coral community on Ngeseksau Reef, Ngermid Bay, Republic of Palau. We observed a net heterotrophic diel signal over the deployment, but dissolved oxygen (O2) fluxes during the day were largely positive, illustrating daytime autotrophy. pH, O2, and temperature followed a clear diel pattern with maxima typically occurring in the afternoon. The relationship between tidal regime and time of day drove the magnitude of the signals observed. The case studies described in Chapters 1 and 2 emphasize the importance of high-resolution measurements (high temporal frequency as well as high horizontal and vertical spatial resolution) and consideration of the multiple drivers responsible for shaping the observed biogeochemical variability. In addition to the photosynthetic biomass (kelp and seagrass) at the center of these studies, the physical environment played an important role in dictating the signals observed, in particular water circulation and residence time.

Biogeochemical studies rarely look beyond a few deployment sites, but the ecosystem contributing to the local biogeochemical variability includes influences from beyond those discrete points. Describing the area around these discrete points is important for accurate assessment of factors driving the signals observed at those points. Remote sensing can help us capture and describe the spatial patterns of biomass contributing to changes observed in our chemical records. In Chapter 3, I established a low altitude unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) record of giant kelp surface areal extent over 18 months on the wave-protected side of Cabrillo Point (Hopkins Marine Station) in Monterey Bay, CA. This was the same canopy responsible for elevating pH in Chapter 1; however, in this case, the kelp canopy mapping did not overlap in time with biogeochemical measurements in the kelp forest. I compared the UAV kelp classification to canopy cover determined from Landsat satellite images obtained over the same period. There was a linear relationship between the drone kelp ratio and Landsat kelp canopy fraction for spatially-matched pixels; a Landsat kelp fraction of 0.64 was equivalent to 100% kelp cover in the drone data. The level of resolution provided by UAV, compared with Landsat images, could allow more detailed mapping of kelp responses to environmental change. Future studies should pair mapping flights with biogeochemical measurements to quantify the relationship between changes in canopy area and the relative surface canopy modification of pH.

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Prospective life cycle assessment of metal commodities obtained from deep-sea polymetallic nodules

Published 13 December 2021 Science Closed
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Highlights

  • A Life Cycle Assessment of commodities from polymetallic nodules was performed.
  • Climate change, photochemical oxidant formation and acidification were considered.
  • The main hotspots are at onshore processes (e.g., hydrometallurgical processing).
  • 38% reduction in carbon footprint can be observed, when comparing to terrestrial.
  • Deep-sea operations may contribute significantly to the growing demand of metals.

Abstract

Sustainable metal supply will be essential to achieve climate and sustainability goals (e.g., Paris agreement), for instance by providing the necessary raw materials for renewable energy infrastructure systems. The potential exploitation of mineral resources from the deep sea (e.g., polymetallic nodules) can play a major role in this supply. A holistic environmental analysis is needed, in order to consider the entire value chain of the products obtained out of deep-sea exploitation. Therefore, the objective of this study was to perform a prospective life cycle assessment (LCA) of deep-sea-sourced commodities and compare it to equivalent products obtained from terrestrial mining. It considered as reference flow one tonne of (dry) nodules, using a cradle-to-gate approach up to the final metal commodities, analyzing the delivery to the market of 10.5 kg of copper, 12.8 kg of nickel, 2.3 kg of cobalt and 311.3 kg of ferromanganese. Three environmental impact categories were analyzed, i.e., climate change, acidification and photochemical oxidant formation. Overall, onshore activities (e.g., hydrometallurgical processing) are the main hotspots for environmental impacts of metals sourced from the deep sea; offshore activities play a minor role in the value chain. While photochemical oxidant formation impacts would be similar to terrestrial alternatives, the deep-sea-sourced commodities can bring environmental gains in the order of 38% for climate change and up to 72% for acidification. As this study shows, a strategic selection of the location for onshore processing of the polymetallic nodules is key to target cleaner production, not only because of the distance from the nodules site, but especially because of the available energy mix. The results should be interpreted with care, though, due to intrinsic limitations of the LCA study, e.g., the prospective nature of this study, the limited access to terrestrial mining data, amongst others. Nonetheless, regardless the limitations a prospective LCA imposes, this study highlights some important potential benefits that commodities from deep-sea polymetallic nodules can bring to society with respect to three important environmental impacts.

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A marine-biology-centric definition of ocean connectivity and the law of the sea

Published 7 December 2021 Science Closed
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The inter-connectedness of marine ecosystems has been repeatedly acknowledged in the relevant literature as well as in policy briefs. Against this backdrop, this article aims at further reflecting on the question of to what extent the law of the sea takes account of or disregards ocean connectivity. In order to address this question, this article starts by providing a brief overview of the notion of ocean connectivity from a marine science perspective, before taking a closer look at the extent to which the law of the sea incorporates the scientific imperative of ocean connectivity in the context of four examples: (i) straits, (ii) climate change and ocean acidification, (iii) salmon and (iv) the ecosystem approach to fisheries. Tying the findings of the different examples together, this study concludes by stressing the need of accommodating ocean connectivity not only in the interpretation and implementation of the existing law (of the sea) but also in its further development.

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Novel environmental conditions due to climate change in the world’s largest marine protected areas

Published 16 November 2021 Science Closed
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Highlights

  • Up to 97% of very large marine protected areas will contain novel conditions
  • Very large marine protected areas in the tropics most exposed to novelty
  • Novel conditions for pH emerge as soon as 2030
  • 44.9% of the ocean will see novel conditions by 2060, up to 87% by 2100

Science for society

Oceans cover more than 70% of the Earth’s surface and provide us with goods and services ranging from food and energy to cultural resources and identity. However, climate change threatens the availability of these ocean-derived benefits. Climate change is turning once familiar and stable ocean conditions into unfamiliar and novel ones. These changes might even be significant enough to undermine much of the work done to protect the ocean.

This research investigates the timing and impact of climate change on the oceans and the largest MPAs. We show that a majority (up to 87%) of the ocean will have novel conditions, as will almost all of the MPAs we examined (97%). These novel conditions may cause culturally and economically important species to migrate or possibly go extinct. Understanding when, where, and how these changes occur can help inform ocean and climate policy that connects people across space and time.

Summary

Climate change is altering the biogeochemical conditions of the ocean, leading to the emergence of novel environmental conditions that may drastically affect the performance of very large marine protected areas (VLMPAs) (area > 100,000 km2). Given the prominent role that VLMPAs play in ocean conservation, determining when and where novel conditions will emerge within VLMPAs is vital for ensuring a healthy ocean in the future. Here, using a non-parametric approach to detect novelty, we show that 60%–87% of the ocean and 76%–97% of VLMPAs are expected to contain novel conditions across multiple biogeochemical variables by 2100, with novel conditions in pH emerging by 2030. With most VLMPAs expected to contain environmental conditions unlike those currently within their boundaries, and given the likelihood of any of these climate futures unfolding, present-day management will need to consider alterations to current and future VLMPA design and use.

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Introduction to Coastal Management Journal special issue on ocean acidification

Published 2 November 2021 Science Closed
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Anthropogenic carbon emissions are increasing atmospheric carbon concentrations. Global oceans absorb about one-fourth of these emissions each year (Friedlingstein et al., 2020). Seawater’s carbon absorption initiates several chemical reactions, including the production of carbonic acid, reduction in the availability of calcium carbonate ion, and declining pH (Doney et al. 2009). This process of chemical changes is called ocean acidification (OA). Models predict that under a “business as usual” greenhouse gas emissions scenario (RCP 8.5), the ocean may become 150% more acidified by 2100 (Phillips et al. 2018 and references therein). As with many climate change impacts, OA is occurring and interacting with many other stressors including ocean warming anddeoxygenation, and non-climate-related stressors like development, habitat degradation and pollution (IPCC 2019). In coastal systems, processes including upwelling, nutrient loading (magnified by wastewater), pollutions and freshwater inputs can further exacerbate conditions (Duarte et al. 2013 and references therein).

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Research handbook on ocean acidification law and policy

Published 22 October 2021 Science Closed
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This important Research Handbook provides a guide to navigating the tangled array of laws and policies available to counter the multiple threats of ocean acidification. It investigates the limitations and opportunities for addressing ocean acidification under global governance frameworks, including multilateral environmental agreements, law of the sea and human rights instruments.
 
The book also describes regional and national approaches and challenges in responding to ocean acidification. The special vulnerabilities of the Arctic, Antarctic and South Pacific are highlighted. Limited responses by regional sea programmes and regional fisheries management organizations are summarized. Case studies are provided from Australia, Brazil, China and the United States.
 
This discerning Research Handbook will be a welcome read for policy makers and students with an interest in the laws and policies of marine governance and climate change. This will also be an ideal read for those who are interested in the pressing environmental issues facing the world community.

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The Integrated Carbon Observation System in Europe

Published 21 October 2021 Science Closed
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Since 1750, land use change and fossil fuel combustion has led to a 46 % increase in the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations, causing global warming with substantial societal consequences. The Paris Agreement aims to limiting global temperature increases to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. Increasing levels of CO2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), in the atmosphere are the primary cause of climate change. Approximately half of the carbon emissions to the atmosphere is sequestered by ocean and land sinks, leading to ocean acidification but also slowing the rate of global warming. However, there are significant uncertainties in the future global warming scenarios due to uncertainties in the size, nature and stability of these sinks. Quantifying and monitoring the size and timing of natural sinks and the impact of climate change on ecosystems are important information to guide policy-makers’ decisions and strategies on reductions in emissions. Continuous, long-term observations are required to quantify GHG emissions, sinks, and their impacts on Earth systems. The Integrated Carbon Observation System (ICOS) was designed as the European in situ observation and information system to support science and society in their efforts to mitigate climate change. It provides standardized and open data currently from over 140 measurement stations across 12 European countries. The stations observe GHG concentrations in the atmosphere and carbon and GHG fluxes between the atmosphere, land surface and the oceans. This article describes how ICOS fulfills its mission to harmonize these observations, ensure the related long-term financial commitments, provide easy access to well-documented and reproducible high-quality data and related protocols and tools for scientific studies, and deliver information and GHG-related products to stakeholders in society and policy.

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Nitrous oxide and methane in a changing Arctic Ocean

Published 15 October 2021 Science Closed
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Human activities are changing the Arctic environment at an unprecedented rate resulting in rapid warming, freshening, sea ice retreat and ocean acidification of the Arctic Ocean. Trace gases such as nitrous oxide (N2O) and methane (CH4) play important roles in both the atmospheric reactivity and radiative budget of the Arctic and thus have a high potential to influence the region’s climate. However, little is known about how these rapid physical and chemical changes will impact the emissions of major climate-relevant trace gases from the Arctic Ocean. The combined consequences of these stressors present a complex combination of environmental changes which might impact on trace gas production and their subsequent release to the Arctic atmosphere. Here we present our current understanding of nitrous oxide and methane cycling in the Arctic Ocean and its relevance for regional and global atmosphere and climate and offer our thoughts on how this might change over coming decades.

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The Gulf of St. Lawrence biogeochemical model: a modelling tool for fisheries and ocean management

Published 14 October 2021 Science Closed
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The goal of this paper is to give a detailed description of the coupled physical-biogeochemical model of the Gulf of St. Lawrence that includes dissolved oxygen and carbonate system components, as well as a detailed analysis of the riverine contribution for different nitrogen and carbonate system components. A particular attention was paid to the representation of the microbial loop in order to maintain the appropriate level of the different biogeochemical components within the system over long term simulations. The skill of the model is demonstrated using in situ data, satellite data and estimated fluxes from different studies based on observational data. The model reproduces the main features of the system such as the phytoplankton bloom, hypoxic areas, pH and calcium carbonate saturation states. The model also reproduces well the estimated transport of nitrate from one region to the other. We revisited previous estimates of the riverine nutrient contribution to surface nitrate in the Lower St. Lawrence Estuary using the model. We also explain the mechanisms that lead to high ammonium concentrations, low dissolved oxygen, and undersaturated calcium carbonate conditions on the Magdalen Shallows.

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Seasonality and life history complexity determine vulnerability of Dungeness crab to multiple climate stressors

Published 11 October 2021 Science Closed
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Abstract

Scaling climate change impacts from individual responses to population-level vulnerability is a pressing challenge for scientists and society. We assessed vulnerability of the most valuable fished species in the Northwest U.S.—Dungeness crab—to climate stressors using a novel combination of ocean, population, and larval transport models with stage-specific consequences of ocean acidification, hypoxia, and warming. Integration across pelagic and benthic life stages revealed increased population-level vulnerability to each stressor by 2100 under RCP 8.5. Under future conditions, chronic vulnerability to low pH emerged year-round for all life stages, whereas vulnerability to low oxygen continued to be acute, developing seasonally and impacting adults, which are critical to population growth. Our results demonstrate how ontogenetic habitat shifts and seasonal ocean conditions interactively impact population-level vulnerability. Because most valuable U.S. fisheries rely on species with complex life cycles in seasonal seas, chronic and acute perspectives are necessary to assess population-level vulnerability to climate change.

Plain Language Summary

The release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere by human activities is altering ocean conditions including pH, oxygen, and temperature. One way to understand how these changing conditions will affect ecologically, economically, and culturally important marine species is to scale individual responses from laboratory experiments to population-level impacts. In this study, we assessed the vulnerability of Dungeness crab, one of the most valuable fisheries in the NW USA, to stressful conditions based on the predicted habitat exposure and response of each life stage (eggs, larvae, juveniles, and adults). The degree of vulnerability was determined by the seasonality of the ocean conditions in combination with the crab’s complex life cycle. This approach revealed that Dungeness crab life stages and populations will be more vulnerable to low pH, low oxygen, and high temperature in the future (year 2100) under an aggressive CO2 emissions scenario. Based on these results, we recommend that fishery managers incorporate changing conditions into their decision-making to protect vulnerable life stages in areas prone to stressful conditions (e.g., adult crabs in hypoxic areas). Our approach can be adapted for many other economically and ecologically important marine species in order to inform conservation and management strategies.

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Climate change vulnerability of cetaceans in Macaronesia: insights from a trait-based assessment

Published 30 September 2021 Science Closed
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Highlights

  • A climate vulnerability assessment was applied to cetaceans in Macaronesia
  • Very High to High vulnerability scores for 62% of species management units
  • Very High to Moderate certainty scores for 67% of units
  • High potential for climate-related responses for over 50% of units
  • Further research on trait-based approaches is needed to support decision-makers

Abstract

Over the last decades global warming has caused an increase in ocean temperature, acidification and oxygen loss which has led to changes in nutrient cycling and primary production affecting marine species at multiple trophic levels. While knowledge about the impacts of climate change in cetacean’s species is still scarce, practitioners and policymakers need information about the species at risk to guide the implementation of conservation measures.

To assess cetacean’s vulnerability to climate change in the biogeographic region of Macaronesia, we adapted the Marine Mammal Climate Vulnerability Assessment (MMCVA) method and applied it to 21 species management units using an expert elicitation approach.

Results showed that over half (62%) of the units assessed presented Very High (5 units) or High (8 units) vulnerability scores. Very High vulnerability scores were found in archipelago associated units of short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus) and common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), namely in the Canary Islands and Madeira, as well as Risso’s dolphins (Grampus griseus) in the Canary Islands. Overall, certainty scores ranged from Very High to Moderate for 67% of units.

Over 50% of units showed a high potential for distribution, abundance and phenology changes as a response to climate change.

With this study we target current and future information needs of conservation managers in the region, and guide research and monitoring efforts, while contributing to the improvement and validation of trait-based vulnerability approaches under a changing climate.

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Ocean acidification (OA) in the Baltic Sea from a Swedish perspective

Published 27 September 2021 Newsletters and reports Closed
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Background
This report is produced as part of the project “Baltic Sea Acidification Mitigation” (BALSAM), supported by the Swedish Institute. The aim of this report and other, corresponding reports (produced for the other countries participating in BALSAM) is primarily to inform environmental NGOs and other stakeholders interested in environmental issues. The aim of this country report is to provide information on Ocean Acidification (OA) in the Baltic Sea with special emphasis on Swedish waters, and to provide an insight into the research and monitoring that are the basis of the current understanding of OA in these waters. This is done as support for campaigning towards mitigation of greenhouse gases and protection of the seas. Whereas this document is not a comprehensive literature review, it is intended as a timely guide to the concept of OA, and does contain key publications and links to further indepth reading and sources of additional information.

Introduction
Ocean acidification (OA) comes in the wake of climate change as the result of increased atmospheric CO2, which is taken up by the oceans. About 30 % of the CO2 that is emitted to the atmosphere because of human activity ends up in the waterbodies. Part of the CO2 reacts with water, and forms carbonic acid. Some of the carbonic acid dissociates, resulting in bicarbonate and in hydrogen ions. This process leads to acidification (lower pH, i.e. higher concentration of hydrogen ions). Organisms in the oceans are adapted to the pH-conditions that have prevailed in the seas prior to this human driven acidification-process. Especially calcifying organisms are sensitive to acidification, but the physiology of many other organisms can be affected as well, as can the complex ecological interactions between organisms. In a global setting, ongoing and projected effects of OA have been extensively described in several IPCC reports (e.g. IPCC, 2018, 2019).

In Sweden, an interdisciplinary review on causes and consequences of OA in the Swedish Seas (including both the Baltic Sea and the more saline waters of Skagerrak at the Swedish west coast), as well as knowledge gaps, was published relatively recently as part of work supported by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (Havenhand et al. 2017). Additionally, in the same context, a scientific review focusing on the ecological consequences of OA was published by Havenhand et al. in 2019. A policy brief1 on OA in the Baltic Sea was furthermore published in 2020 by The Baltic Sea Centre of Stockholm University (Gustafsson & Winder 2020). This policy brief provides a general view of OA as support for policy making.

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Editorial: fitness of marine calcifiers in the future acidifying ocean

Published 23 September 2021 Science Closed
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Over the last century, anthropogenic CO2 emissions via combustion of fossil fuels have caused drastic changes in oceans with sea surface temperatures increasing steadily due to global warming. In addition to ocean warming, seawater has become more acidic as more CO2 is dissolved into the world’s oceans (IPCC, 2019). As CO2 emissions are forecast to accelerate in the future (Caldeira and Wickett, 2005), understanding how marine organisms are influenced by ocean acidification (OA) and warming has received substantial attention (Doney et al., 2009). Organisms which build calcareous structures for growth and protection (e.g., coccolithophores, corals, gastropods, bivalves, and sea urchins) are of particular concern because OA is expected to make calcification more energy-demanding and increase dissolution of calcareous structures (Harvey et al., 2018; Byrne and Fitzer, 2019). Consequently, the fitness and survival of marine calcifiers could be reduced, possibly affecting the integrity of marine ecosystems in view of their abundance, diversity, and ecological functions in oceans.

There is now a large body of literature which demonstrates that calcifiers can indeed be impaired by OA in various aspects, such as physiology, calcification, growth, and survival (Harvey et al., 2013). Nevertheless, growing evidence reveals that some calcifiers can prevail in the CO2-acidified environment and produce durable calcareous structures (e.g., Leung et al., 2019, 2020a; Di Giglio et al., 2020), implying their resistance and adaptability to OA. Thus, more comprehensive studies are needed to decipher how calcifiers adjust or succumb to OA and how warming modulates the impacts of OA on calcifiers. We brought together this Research Topic to address these issues and provide better insights into the fate of calcifiers in future marine ecosystems.

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Ocean acidification in the Arctic in a multi-regulatory, climate justice perspective

Published 22 September 2021 Science Closed
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The latest IPCC report on Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, which builds upon previous IPCC’s reports, established a causal link between anthropogenic impacts and ocean acidification, by noting a significant decrease in the Ocean’s uptake of CO2, with consequent damage to Earth’s ecosystems, which in turn has traceable repercussions on the Arctic Ocean and then from the Arctic to the Planet Earth. The impact of ocean acidification is not only in the biological ecosystem but also on human activities, such as livelihood, food security, socio-economic security and developing communities. However, who can possibly be held ethically/legally responsible for ocean acidification from a climate justice perspective? Since what happens in the Arctic does not stay there, a more systematic law and policy approach to study options and responses in a multi-level, climate- ethical, global perceptive is needed. This paper sheds light on the legal responses available at global, regional and national levels to ocean acidification in a law of the sea and ocean context, both in the Arctic and from the Arctic. The gaps in legal and policy responses in connection to the ethical climate component will be identified. It will shed light on the planetary limits that humanity needs to stay within in order to maintain the future of the Earth. Since it touches upon questions of legal responsibility, on who is responsible for ocean acidification, it will connect to the “supply side” of fossil fuels production and global extraction projects causing anthropogenic CO2 emissions, one of the major causes of ocean acidification. It will also identify which actors, be they “officials” or “non-officials” (such as international organizations, states, regional institutes, Arctic citizens or even forums) should be held ethically responsible, and who should take action.

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Capacity building to address ocean change: organizing across communities of place, practice and governance to achieve ocean acidification and hypoxia resilience in Oregon

Published 20 September 2021 Science Closed
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Fossil fuel combustion and related accumulation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and oceans have contributed significantly to climate and ocean change. While coastal upwelling is responsible for the incredible diversity and productivity that has fueled iconic West Coast wild fisheries and ecosystems, it also is the source of extremes in OAH impacts, especially during the late summer (e.g., Chan et al. 2019). While upwelled waters of the California Current Ecosystem are typically low in dissolved oxygen (DO), high in dissolved CO2 and thus more acidified, the chemical balance of upwelled waters has notably changed in recent decades. Ocean absorption of atmospheric CO2 and other ocean changes are resulting in upwelled waters lower or more acidified in pH, higher in CO2 and further depressed in dissolved oxygen (DO) (e.g., Chan et al. 2019). As a result, the West Coast of North America is now considered a hotspot of ocean acidification and hypoxia (OAH). Even as ocean conditions are predicted to change further over the coming decades (e.g., Ekstrom et al. 2015; Hodgson et al. 2018), Oregon and the West Coast are experiencing ocean changes today and expecting further trends in shifting ocean food webs (e.g., Marshall et al. 2017; Xiu et al. 2018), loss of fishery productivity (e.g., Lomonico et al. 2021; Haugen et al. 2021), and reduced economic opportunity for ocean-dependent businesses (e.g., Doney et al. 2020; Hoelting and Burkardt 2017). This paper focuses on identifiable actions that human communities are taking in reaction to ocean change to mitigate these increasingly apparent impacts.

Whiskey Creek Shellfish Hatchery, located in Netarts Bay, Oregon, was among the first places in the world to experience direct impacts from ocean acidification (OA) starting in 2006/2007 (Barton et al. 2015). At that time the hatchery was suddenly unable to reliably produce Pacific oyster larvae (Magallana gigas), with production reduced by over 75% (Barton et al. 2015). As a result, oyster seed supply became limited from Alaska to California, threatening the West Coast’s $270 million dollar oyster growing industry (Northern Economics, Inc. 2013). In response, Oregon researchers worked collaboratively with the oyster industry to eventually rule out disease and identify the problem as OA, from hatchery pumping of bay waters during summer upwelling events, bringing increasingly acidified deep ocean waters. Hatchery operations successfully resumed once they developed water quality practices to mitigate deleterious water conditions (Kelly, Cooley, and Klinger 2014; Barton et al. 2015). However, treatment of water quality is now central to business success and is increasingly challenging to manage.

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Continue reading ‘Capacity building to address ocean change: organizing across communities of place, practice and governance to achieve ocean acidification and hypoxia resilience in Oregon’

Climate change impacts, vulnerability, and mitigation in the Indian Ocean region: policy suggestions

Published 14 September 2021 Science Closed
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Climate Change is considered as the mother of many global concerns in the twenty-first century and is a significant driver of biodiversity loss leading to major threats to species, ecosystems, and people’s livelihood around the globe, in general, and the Indian Ocean in particular. Warming of oceans and ocean acidification can prove critical and challenging for the present and future generations. Oceans are one major realm that is impacted due to the natural climatic fluctuations and other anthropomorphic activities. The capacity of oceans to absorb carbon dioxide, a significant ecosystem service, is declining over time continuously with increasing carbon emissions. Thus, a reduction in greenhouse gases calls for alternate energy resources that are more secure, efficient, and environmental friendly. Moreover, the scenario of climate change vulnerabilities in developing countries is studied extensively. The unanimous call by a great majority of the scientific community is for a drastic reduction in greenhouse gasses particularly CO2 as well as significant measures aiming at conservation of resources. The Indian Ocean climatic conditions and its variations are studied to arrive at climate mitigation measures. It also attempts to deliver constructive recommendations toward policy development. A good policy should account for alternative risk reduction strategies-mitigation, adaptation, and insurance.

Continue reading ‘Climate change impacts, vulnerability, and mitigation in the Indian Ocean region: policy suggestions’

The role of a changing Arctic Ocean and climate for the biogeochemical cycling of dimethyl sulphide and carbon monoxide

Published 7 September 2021 Science Closed
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Dimethyl sulphide (DMS) and carbon monoxide (CO) are climate-relevant trace gases that play key roles in the radiative budget of the Arctic atmosphere. Under global warming, Arctic sea ice retreats at an unprecedented rate, altering light penetration and biological communities, and potentially affect DMS and CO cycling in the Arctic Ocean. This could have socio-economic implications in and beyond the Arctic region. However, little is known about CO production pathways and emissions in this region and the future development of DMS and CO cycling. Here we summarize the current understanding and assess potential future changes of DMS and CO cycling in relation to changes in sea ice coverage, light penetration, bacterial and microalgal communities, pH and physical properties. We suggest that production of DMS and CO might increase with ice melting, increasing light availability and shifting phytoplankton community. Among others, policy measures should facilitate large-scale process studies, coordinated long term observations and modelling efforts to improve our current understanding of the cycling and emissions of DMS and CO in the Arctic Ocean and of global consequences.

Continue reading ‘The role of a changing Arctic Ocean and climate for the biogeochemical cycling of dimethyl sulphide and carbon monoxide’

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