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Ocean acidification in a geoengineering context

Published 13 August 2012 Science Closed
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Fundamental changes to marine chemistry are occurring because of increasing carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. Ocean acidity (H+ concentration) and bicarbonate ion concentrations are increasing, whereas carbonate ion concentrations are decreasing. There has already been an average pH decrease of 0.1 in the upper ocean, and continued unconstrained carbon emissions would further reduce average upper ocean pH by approximately 0.3 by 2100. Laboratory experiments, observations and projections indicate that such ocean acidification may have ecological and biogeochemical impacts that last for many thousands of years. The future magnitude of such effects will be very closely linked to atmospheric CO2; they will, therefore, depend on the success of emission reduction, and could also be constrained by geoengineering based on most carbon dioxide removal (CDR) techniques. However, some ocean-based CDR approaches would (if deployed on a climatically significant scale) re-locate acidification from the upper ocean to the seafloor or elsewhere in the ocean interior. If solar radiation management were to be the main policy response to counteract global warming, ocean acidification would continue to be driven by increases in atmospheric CO2, although with additional temperature-related effects on CO2 and CaCO3 solubility and terrestrial carbon sequestration.

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Climate change and ocean acidification – effects on seagrasses and marine macroalgae

Published 3 August 2012 Science Closed
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Although seagrasses and marine macroalgae (macro-autotrophs) play critical ecological roles in reef, lagoon, coastal and open-water ecosystems, thier response to ocean acidification (OA) and climate change is not well understood. In this review, we examine marine macro-autotroph biochemistry and physiology relevant to their response to elevated dissolved inorganic carbon [DIC], carbon dioxide [CO2],and lower carbonate [CO32-] and pH. We also explore the effects of increasing temperature under climate change and the interactions of elevated temperate and [CO2]. Finally, recommendations are made for future research based on this synthesis. A literature review of >100 species revealed that marine macro-autotrophphotosynthesis is overwhelmingly C3(≥85%) with most species capable of utilizing HCO3–; however, most are not saturated at current ocean[DIC]. These results, and the presence of CO2-only users, lead us to conclude that photosynthetic and growth rates of marine macro-autotrophs are likely to increase under elevated [CO2] similar to terrestrial C3 species. In the tropics, many species live close to their thermal limits and will have to up-regulate stress-response systems to tolerate sublethal temperature exposures with climate change, while elevated [CO2] effects on thermal acclimation are unknown. Fundamental linkages between elevated [CO2] and temperature on photorespiration, enzyme systems, carbohydrate production and calcification dictate the need to consider these two parameters simultaneously. Relevant to calcifiers, elevated [CO2]lowers net calcification and this effect is amplified by high temperature. Although the mechanisms are unclear, OA likely disrupts diffusion and transport systems of H+ and DIC. These fluxes control micro-environments that promote calcification over dissolution and maybe more important than CaCO3mineralogy in predicting macroalgal responses to OA. Calcareous macroalgae are highly vulnerable to OA, and it is likely that fleshy macroalgae will dominate in a higher CO2 ocean; therefore, it is critical to elucidate the research gaps identified in this review.

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Host-parasite interactions: a litmus test for ocean acidification?

Published 24 July 2012 Science Closed
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The effects of ocean acidification (OA) on marine species and ecosystems have received significant scientific attention in the past 10 years. However, to date, the effects of OA on hostparasite interactions have been largely ignored. As parasites play a multidimensional role in the regulation of marine population, community, and ecosystem dynamics, this knowledge gap may result in an incomplete understanding of the consequences of OA. In addition, the impact of stressors associated with OA on hostparasite interactions may serve as an indicator of future changes to the biodiversity of marine systems. This opinion article discusses the potential effects of OA on host and parasite species and proposes the use of parasites as bioindicators of OA disturbance.

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Ocean acidification and coral reefs: effects on breakdown, dissolution, and net ecosystem calcification

Published 23 July 2012 Science Closed
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The persistence of carbonate structures on coral reefs is essential in providing habitats for a large number of species and maintaining the extraordinary biodiversity associated with these ecosystems. As a consequence of ocean acidification (OA), the ability of marine calcifiers to produce calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and their rate of CaCO3 production could decrease while rates of bioerosion and CaCO3 dissolution could increase, resulting in a transition from a condition of net accretion to one of net erosion. This would have negative consequences for the role and function of coral reefs and the eco-services they provide to dependent human communities. In this article, we review estimates of bioerosion, CaCO3 dissolution, and net ecosystem calcification (NEC) and how these processes will change in response to OA. Furthermore, we critically evaluate the observed relationships between NEC and seawater aragonite saturation state (Ωa). Finally, we propose that standardized NEC rates combined with observed changes in the ratios of dissolved inorganic carbon to total alkalinity owing to net reef metabolism may provide a biogeochemical tool to monitor the effects of OA in coral reef environments.

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Role of squid in the Southern Ocean pelagic ecosystem and the possible consequences of climate change

Published 16 July 2012 Science Closed
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Southern Ocean squid are important predators and prey and are a potential fishery resource. Their future under climate change is analysed from predictions of change by 2100 and assessments of the effects on squid biology. There are ~18 Antarctic species of Antarctic squid. Young feed primarily on crustaceans and switch later to fishes. They are preyed on by odontocetes, seals and seabirds – which together consume ~34×106 t yr−1 – and fish. As predators, squid are second to fish as biomass producers but recent evidence suggests predator consumption of squid needs to be reassessed. Fatty acid composition and stable nitrogen isotope ratios indicate some predators consume less squid in their diet than gut contents data suggest. Southern Ocean oceanography is unique in having circumpolar circulation and frontal systems and at high latitudes it is heavily influenced by sea ice. The Antarctic Peninsula is among the fastest warming regions worldwide but elsewhere the Southern Ocean is warming more slowly and the Ross Sea is probably cooling. Sea ice is receding in the Peninsula region and increasing elsewhere. Modelled predictions for 2100 suggest although the Southern Ocean will warm less than other oceans sea ice will reduce. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current may shift slightly southwards with intensification of westerly winds but resolution of the models is insufficient to predict mesoscale change. Globally, pH of seawater has decreased by 0.1 units since the mid-1900s and is predicted to decrease by another 0.5 units by 2100. Impact on calcifying organisms will be high in the cold Southern Ocean where solubility of calcium carbonate is high. Predicted temperature increases are unlikely to have major effects on squid other than changes in distribution near the limits of their range; acidification may have greater impact. Small changes in large scale circulation are unlikely to affect squid but changes in mesoscale oceanography may have high impact. Change in sea ice extent may not have a direct effect but consequent ecosystem changes could have a major impact. Cephalopods are ecological opportunists adapted to exploit favourable environmental conditions. Given their potential to evolve fast, change in the Southern Ocean pelagic ecosystem might act in their favour.

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Impact of climate change on Antarctic krill

Published 11 July 2012 Science Closed
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Antarctic krill Euphausia superba (hereafter ‘krill’) occur in regions undergoing rapid environmental change, particularly loss of winter sea ice. During recent years, harvesting of krill has increased, possibly enhancing stress on krill and Antarctic ecosystems. Here we review the overall impact of climate change on krill and Antarctic ecosystems, discuss implications for an ecosystem-based fisheries management approach and identify critical knowledge gaps. Sea ice decline, ocean warming and other environmental stressors act in concert to modify the abundance, distribution and life cycle of krill. Although some of these changes can have positive effects on krill, their cumulative impact is most likely negative. Recruitment, driven largely by the winter survival of larval krill, is probably the population parameter most susceptible to climate change. Predicting changes to krill populations is urgent, because they will seriously impact Antarctic ecosystems. Such predictions, however, are complicated by an intense inter-annual variability in recruitment success and krill abundance. To improve the responsiveness of the ecosystem-based management approach adopted by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), critical knowledge gaps need to be filled. In addition to a better understanding of the factors influencing recruitment, management will require a better understanding of the resilience and the genetic plasticity of krill life stages, and a quantitative understanding of under-ice and benthic habitat use. Current precautionary management measures of CCAMLR should be maintained until a better understanding of these processes has been achieved.

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Review of climate change impacts on marine fisheries in the UK and Ireland

Published 2 July 2012 Science Closed
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  1. Commercial fishing is an important socio-economic activity in coastal regions of the UK and Ireland. Ocean–atmospheric changes caused by greenhouse gas emissions are likely to affect future fish and shellfish production, and lead to increasing challenges in ensuring long-term sustainable fisheries management.
  2. The paper reviews existing knowledge and understanding of the exposure of marine ecosystems to ocean-atmospheric changes, the consequences of these changes for marine fisheries in the UK and Ireland, and the adaptability of the UK and Irish fisheries sector.
  3. Ocean warming is resulting in shifts in the distribution of exploited species and is affecting the productivity of fish stocks and underlying marine ecosystems. In addition, some studies suggest that ocean acidification may have large potential impacts on fisheries resources, in particular shell-forming invertebrates.
  4. These changes may lead to loss of productivity, but also the opening of new fishing opportunities, depending on the interactions between climate impacts, fishing grounds and fleet types. They will also affect fishing regulations, the price of fish products and operating costs, which in turn will affect the economic performance of the UK and Irish fleets.
  5. Key knowledge gaps exist in our understanding of the implications of climate and ocean chemistry changes for marine fisheries in the UK and Ireland, particularly on the social and economic responses of the fishing sectors to climate change. However, these gaps should not delay climate change mitigation and adaptation policy actions, particularly those measures that clearly have other ‘co-benefits’.

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High CO2 and marine animal behaviour: potential mechanisms and ecological consequences

Published 2 July 2012 Science Closed
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Exposure to pollution and environmental change can alter the behaviour of aquatic animals and here we review recent evidence that exposure to elevated CO2 and reduced sea water pH alters the behaviour of tropical reef fish and hermit crabs. Three main routes through which behaviour might be altered are discussed; elevated metabolic load, ‘info-disruption’ and avoidance behaviour away from polluted locations. There is clear experimental evidence that exposure to high CO2 disrupts the ability to find settlement sites and shelters, the ability to detect predators and the ability to detect prey and food. In marine vertebrates and marine crustaceans behavioural change appears to occur via info-disruption. In hermit crabs and other crustaceans impairment of performance capacities might also play a role. We discuss the implications for such behavioural changes in terms of potential impacts at the levels of population health and ecosystem services, and consider future directions for research.

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The likelihood and potential impact of future change in the large-scale climate-earth system on ecosystem services

Published 29 June 2012 Science Closed
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This article reviews the level of current scientific understanding regarding the impact of future change in the large-scale climate-earth system on ecosystem services. Impacts from sea level rise, ocean acidification, increases in ocean temperature, potential collapse of the thermohaline circulation; failure of the South Asia monsoon; the melting of sea ice, the Greenland Ice Sheet and the West Antarctic Ice Sheet; changes in water availability; and Amazonia forest dieback, are considered. The review highlights that while a number of uncertainties remain in understanding, there is evidence to suggest that climate change may have already affected some ecosystem services. Furthermore, there is considerable evidence to show that future climate change could have impacts on biodiversity, as well as secondary impacts on issues important to human society, including; habitability; land productivity and food security; water security; and potential economic impacts.

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Benthic invertebrates in a high-CO2 world

Published 27 June 2012 Science Closed
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Ocean acidification (OA), whereby increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (cO2) over the past 200 years have led to a decline in the pH and carbonate ion availability of the oceans, has emerged as one of the major drivers of twenty- first century marine scientific research. Here we describe the current understanding of OA effects on benthic marine invertebrates, in particular the calcifiers thought to be most sensitive to altered carbonate chemistry. We describe the responses of benthic invertebrates to OA conditions predicted up to the end of the century, examining individual organism response through to ecosystem- level impacts. Research over the past decade has found great variability in the physiological and functional response of different species and communities to OA, with further variability evident between life stages. Over both geological and recent timescales, the presence and calcification rates of marine calcifiers have been inextricably linked to the carbon chemistry of the oceans. Under short-term experimentally enhanced cO2 conditions, many organisms have shown trade-offs in their physiological responses, such as reductions in calcification rate and reproductive output. In addition, carry-over effects from fertilization, larval and juvenile stages, such as enhanced development time and morphological changes, highlight the need for broad- scale studies over multiple life stages. These organism- level responses may propagate through to altered benthic communities under naturally enhanced cO2 conditions, evident in studies of upwelling regions and at shallow- water volcanic cO2 vents. Only by establishing which benthic invertebrates have the ability to acclimate or adapt, via natural selection, to changes from OA, in combination with other environmental stressors, can we begin to predict the consequences of future climate change for these communities.

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Future biological and ecosystem impacts of ocean acidification and their socioeconomic-policy implications

Published 19 June 2012 Science Closed
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Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions to the atmosphere and subsequent uptake by the ocean are changing seawater chemistry, a process known as ocean acidification. Research indicates that as ocean acidification continues, reflecting increasing CO2 emissions, it is likely that although some species will be tolerant it will impact many marine organisms and processes, including composition of communities and food webs. Whilst there may be local actions to limit acidification from local sources the root cause of ocean acidification, CO2 emissions, is a global issue requiring global action through United Nations bodies.

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Seaweed responses to ocean acidification

Published 12 June 2012 Science Closed
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Ocean acidification (OA) is the decline in seawater pH caused by the sustained absorption by the oceans of anthropogenically produced atmospheric CO2. The consequences of OA to seaweed-based coastal ecosystems range from organismal to community levels of biological organization. Organismal responses can be species specific, depending on their carbon physiology, mode of calcification, and morphology (functional form). At the community scale, changes in community structure and function can have severe consequences on trophic dynamics. Biologically driven fluctuations in seawater carbonate chemistry are observed from micro- (diffusion boundary layer, DBL) to mesoscales (e.g., within a kelp forest), and such fluctuations may be exacerbated by OA. The synergistic effects of elevated CO2 with other human-induced environmental stressors (e.g., warming, eutrophication, and UVR) could make the primary producers of coastal ecosystems vulnerable to global climate change; some species may perform better than others under “greenhouse” conditions, leading to community phase shifts.

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A hypothesis linking sub-optimal seawater pCO2 conditions for cnidarian-Symbiodinium symbioses with the exceedence of the interglacial threshold (>260 ppmv) (update)

Published 7 June 2012 Science Closed
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Most scleractinian corals and many other cnidarians host intracellular photosynthetic dinoflagellate symbionts (“zooxanthellae”). The zooxanthellae contribute to host metabolism and skeletogenesis to such an extent that this symbiosis is well recognised for its contribution in creating the coral reef ecosystem. The stable functioning of cnidarian symbioses is however dependent upon the host’s ability to maintain demographic control of its algal partner. In this review, I explain how the modern envelope of seawater conditions found within many coral reef ecosystems (characterised by elevated temperatures, rising pCO2, and enriched nutrient levels) are antagonistic toward the dominant host processes that restrict excessive symbiont proliferation. Moreover, I outline a new hypothesis and initial evidence base, which support the suggestion that the additional “excess” zooxanthellae fraction permitted by seawater pCO2 levels beyond 260 ppmv significantly increases the propensity for symbiosis breakdown (“bleaching”) in response to temperature and irradiance extremes. The relevance of this biological threshold is discussed in terms of historical reef extinction events, glacial-interglacial climate cycles and the modern decline of coral reef ecosystems.

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Review of climate change impacts on marine fish and shellfish around the UK and Ireland

Published 14 May 2012 Science Closed
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  1. Recent and projected future changes in the temperature and chemistry of marine waters around the UK and Ireland are having, and will in the future have, effects on the phenology, productivity and distribution of marine fish and shellfish. However, the overall consequences are still hard to predict because behaviour, genetic adaptation, habitat dependency and the impacts of fishing on species, result in complex species’ responses that may be only partially explained by simple climate envelope predictions.
  2. There is a broad body of evidence that climatic fluctuations are playing an important role in changing fish distributions and abundances, which is discernible against the background of trends in abundance due to fishing. During warm periods, southern species have tended to become more prominent and northern species less abundant. However, the changes in distribution are often more complicated than might be expected from a simple climate envelope approach, partly due to ocean circulation patterns which create invasion routes for southern water species into the North Sea from the south and from the north via the continental shelf west of Britain and Ireland.
  3. The eventual population-scale impacts of ocean acidification on fish and shellfish are currently very difficult to predict. However, the scant evidence suggests that indirect food web effects arising from the enhanced sensitivity of calcifying planktonic organisms may be important, and the direct effect on fish sensory systems leading to subtle influences on behaviour with possible population-level implications are possible.
  4. In British waters, the lesser sandeel (Ammodytes marinus) is identified as being at particular risk from climate change. Owing to its strict association with coarse sandy sediments it is unable to adapt its distribution to compensate for warming sea temperatures. Sandeels are a key link in the food web, linking primary and zooplankton production to top predators.

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Impacts of climate change, including acidification, on marine ecosystems and fisheries

Published 7 May 2012 Science Closed
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Marine ecosystems have always been affected by changes in climate at timescales from decades to millions of years. Since the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century the increase in greenhouse gases (GHG) has caused an accelerating rise in global temperature whose effects on marine biota can be detected at individual, population and ecosystem level. The rising level of CO2 and consequent acidification of the oceans is having an impact on metabolism and calcification in many organisms, with damage to vulnerable ecosystems, such as coral reefs, already occurring. The pH of the oceans is already lower now than it has been for the past 600,000 years.

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Integrated management of nutrients from the watershed to coast in the subtropical region

Published 2 May 2012 Science Closed
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This paper is a brief review on nutrient variation (changes in element concentrations and ratios) and the associated aquatic ecosystem responses in the subtropical region. Human activities have significantly modified both the flux and the ratio of nutrients delivered to aquatic ecosystems. Climate perturbations influence the hydrological regime and enhance nutrient mineralization and transport from land to receiving waters. Changes in land use and damming have resulted in changes in the balance among nitrogen, phosphorus and silicon elements, thus increasing the risk of algal bloom. Nutrient variation and its ecological effects in the subtropical region could be more significant than in other areas because of rapid development and high population. Aquatic ecosystems respond to nutrient variation in complex and dynamic ways resulting in eutrophication, hypoxia/anoxia, acidification, and changes in phytoplankton and microbial communities. This review suggests that harmful algal bloom, jellyfish bloom, and serious pathogens are often associated with nutrient variations. The current challenges to scientific research and management include the facts that (1) the link between nutrient dynamics and ecosystem responses is poorly understood; (2) monitoring data to support modeling and management are scarce; (3) aquatic ecosystems are site-specific and/or situation-specific and are highly dynamic, giving greater complexity in research and management; and (4) the lack of regional coordination in traditional management causes transboundary gaps. To address these current challenges, an integrated management framework was proposed for effective nutrient management. Institutional arrangements should be developed to coordinate across multiple government agencies and other stakeholders from watershed to coast. The framework should integrate an interdisciplinary scientific approach and adaptive principles regarding nutrient management.

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Biogeochemical response of tropical coastal systems to present and past environmental change

Published 23 April 2012 Science Closed
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Global climate and environmental change affect the biogeochemistry and ecology of aquatic systems mostly due to a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors. The latter became more and more important during the past few thousand years and particularly during the ‘Anthropocene’. However, although they are considered important in this respect as yet much less is known from tropical than from high latitude coasts. Tropical coasts receive the majority of river inputs into the ocean, they harbor a variety of diverse ecosystems and a majority of the population lives there and economically depends on their natural resources. This review delineates the biogeochemical response of coastal systems to environmental change and the interplay of natural and anthropogenic control factors nowadays and in the recent geological past with an emphasis on tropical regions. Weathering rates are higher in low than in high latitude regions with a maximum in the SE Asia/Western Pacific region. On a global scale the net effect of increasing erosion due to deforestation and sediment retention behind dams is a reduced sediment input into the oceans during the Anthropocene. However, an increase was observed in the SE Asia/Western Pacific region. Nitrogen and phosphorus inputs into the ocean have trebled between the 1970s and 1990s due to human activities. As a consequence of increased nutrient inputs and a change in the nutrient mix excessive algal blooms and changes in the phytoplankton community composition towards non-biomineralizing species have been observed in many regions. This has implications for foodwebs and biogeochemical cycles of coastal seas including the release of greenhouse gases. Examples from tropical coasts with high population density and extensive agriculture, however, display deviations from temperate and subtropical regions in this respect. According to instrumental records and observations the present-day biogeochemical and ecological response to environmental change appears to be on the order of decades. A sediment record from the Brazilian continental margin spanning the past 85,000 years, however, depicts that the ecosystem response to changes in climate and hydrology can be on the order of 1,000-2,000 years. The coastal ocean carbon cycle is very sensitive to Anthropocene changes in land-derived carbon and nutrient fluxes and increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. As opposing trends in high latitude regions tropical coastal seas display increasing organic matter inputs and reduced calcification rates which have important implications for calcifying organisms and the carbon source or sink function of the coastal ocean. Particularly coral reefs which are thriving in warm tropical waters are suffering from ocean acidification. Nevertheless, they are not affected uniformly and the sensitivity to ocean acidification may vary largely among coral reefs. Therefore, the prediction of future scenarios requires an improved understanding of present and past responses to environmental change with particular emphasis put on tropical regions.

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Carbonate production by calcareous red algae and global change

Published 6 April 2012 Science Closed
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The most important groups of modern red calcareous algae are the Mg-calcite secreting Corallinales and Sporolithales, and the aragonitic Peyssonneliales and Nemaliales. They are common on the world’s shelves and are vulnerable to the global warming and the lowering of pH of sea water, caused by the ongoing increase in anthropogenic CO2. Among them, coralline algae are ecosystem engineers and major producers of carbonate sediment, of particular importance in temperate and cold seas. Corallines respond to marine acidification and rising temperature showing decreased net calcification, decreased growth and reproduction, as well as reduced abundance and diversity, leading to death and ecological shift to dominant non-calcifying algae. Despite their key ecological and sedimentological role, and because of their vulnerability to marine warming and acidification, our knowledge of the distribution of coralline-dominated habitats and the quantification of their carbonate production is not adequate to allow proper environmental management and confident modelling of a global carbon budget. Locating the algal carbonate factories around the world, then describing them, e.g., evaluating their extent and their production, are a priority for future research.

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Oceanic acidification: A comprehensive overview

Published 7 March 2012 Science Closed
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This book critically examines the available literature on oceanic acidification, including a historical review of pH and atmospheric CO2 levels over the millennia; natural and anthropogenic sources of CO2 to the atmosphere and sea surface; chemical, physical, and biological mode of action; biological effects of acidification to marine plants and animals under laboratory conditions; field observations on seawater chemistry and effects of declining pH; and various technical and political mitigation strategies. Written by Dr. Ronald Eisler, a noted authority on chemical risk assessment, the book summarizes real and projected effects of oceanic acidification.

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Ocean Acidification – How will ongoing ocean acidification affect marine life?

Published 29 February 2012 Science Closed
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