Highlights
- Hatching success of Artemia salina was impaired by acidified conditions.
- Development of Artemia salina pre-nauplii was negatively impacted by both species of harmful algae and low pH exposure.
- Only toxin-producing harmful algal species produced significant morphological abnormalities of pre-naupliar Artemia salina.
- No synergistic effects of harmful algae and low pH exposure was seen in this study.
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) and ocean acidification are major stressors in coastal marine ecosystems, yet their combined effects on early zooplankton development remain poorly understood. This study tested whether HABs and low pH exposure exert synergistic effects on the embryonic development and hatching success of brine shrimp (Artemia salina) cysts. Cysts were exposed to controls, toxin-producing HAB species (i.e. Margalefidinium polykrikoides or Alexandrium catenella), or a non-toxin producing HAB control (i.e. Gymnodinium aureolum) and at either ambient (pH ∼ 8) or acidified (pH ∼ 7.2) conditions. We hypothesized that the combined exposure to a toxin-producing HAB at acidified pH conditions would reduce hatching success and alter embryonic morphology. Low pH exposure consistently reduced hatching success and slowed developmental progression across treatments, reducing nauplii production. HAB exposure alone did not affect hatching success, but exposure to toxin-producing HABs in ambient pH conditions did significantly increase the morphological abnormalities at the membrane stage. Overall, no synergistic effects of HABs and low pH exposure were found for any response variable. Instead, HABs and low pH exposure exerted distinct, stage-specific impacts that were additive rather than interactive. These findings suggest that while exposure to toxin-producing HABs primarily disrupts morphology and low pH exposure slows development and reduces hatching success, their combined effects do not exceed additive expectations. Future work should explore physiological mechanisms underlying these stress responses and assess whether similar patterns occur in other cyst-producing zooplankton.
Candia J. A. & Rountos K. J., 2026. Evaluating the combined effects of harmful algal blooms and low pH exposure on the development and hatching success of Artemia salina. Marine Pollution Bulletin 233(2): 120241. doi: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2026.120241. Article.
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