Coral reefs are among the most extraordinary ecosystems on Earth. They are living structures built by countless tiny polyps, yet they rival tropical rainforests in biodiversity, productivity, and ecological importance. They are subject to global, well-known, nonhuman disturbances, such as intense ocean currents, storm impacts, extreme weather events, climatic variations, disease, and predator outbreaks. They are recognized by the global human society for their care and preservation in a variety of Protected Areas. Coral reefs are also affected by the deleterious effects of diverse human activities, including local activities such as fisheries and tourism, and regional activities such as deforestation – illustrated by the unexpected impact of large logs on the coral crest – agriculture, the oil industry, coastal urban development, river outflow quality and quantity, nutrients, and contaminants. These factors collectively cause a harmful synergistic effect. Additionally, coral reefs are vulnerable to the long-term effects of climate change, including sea level rise, acidification, and high temperatures. Over evolutionary timescales, several forces have shaped coral reefs. For instance, Hamilton et al. [1] note that deforestation on tropical islands releases sediments that travel through rivers into the ocean. These sediments settle into reef crevices, effectively “suffocating” the habitat. Furthermore, this research emphasizes that water quality is degraded not only by land-based runoff (sedimentation) but also by the transport of agricultural nutrients. These nutrients promote macroalgal blooms, which directly compete with coral for space and sunlight. Knowledge of volcanic activity today still focuses on human risk to infrastructure and human life, while attention to potential effects on natural resources remains minimal. For example, Loughlin et al. [2] discuss how risk is calculated based on “Exposure” and “Vulnerability,” traditionally measured by human population density and capital assets.
Eugenio Arenas Fuentes V., Piña Flores J. & Hernández Simón D. 2026. A review of volcanic activity and the evolution of coral reefs. In Latest Advances in Volcanology [Working Title]. IntechOpen. Book chapter.
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