Highlights:
- Total alkalinity (AT) measurements via CO2 equilibration are rapid and precise.
- Equilibrations with a silicone membrane allow continuous AT measurements.
- Stopped-flow and direct equilibration methods significantly reduce sample volume.
- Equilibration methods can be integrated into multi-parameter instruments.
- AT and pH measurements require sample volumes as small as 0.5 to 1.5 milliliters.
Abstract
Background: Total alkalinity (AT) is a fundamental parameter in understanding the oceanic cycling of carbon dioxide (CO2). Measurements of the AT of natural waters are typically obtained through single- or multi-step titrations using a strong acid, with the endpoint pH determined via potentiometry or spectrophotometry. Conventional AT determinations are labor-intensive and require precise knowledge of the sample’s weight or volume. Equilibration with CO2 gas, with or without a membrane, can simplify the procedure and reduce the required sample volume while maintaining high precision.
Results: Several spectrophotometric AT methodologies involving CO2 gas as a titrant are presented: stopped-flow equilibration across a liquid core waveguide (LCW), continuous equilibration using gas-permeable silicone tubing, and direct bubbling with CO2 gas for measurements of small samples. Alkalinity determinations from CO2 equilibration are based on a simple linear relationship between AT, pCO2, and spectrophotometric pH. Incorporating an empirically derived, temperature-dependent calibration constant, E(T), eliminates the need for precise CO2 concentrations. Equilibration-based AT measurements demonstrated high precision (±1.0 to 2.0 μmol kg-1) and were in strong agreement with standard titration methods (±2.0 μmol kg-1). Novel spectrophotometric instrumentation is introduced, named the Minimal Volume Multiparameter Inorganic Carbon Analyzer (MVMICA), capable of precise pHT (±0.002) and AT measurements with volumes ∼1.0 mL. The accuracy of MVMICA over a wide range of conditions makes it invaluable for assessing carbonate chemistry in aquatic systems using limited available sample volumes.
Significance: The three methods presented in this paper offer flexible configurations, each adaptable for specific applications. Membrane equilibrations using Teflon AF 2400 LCW or silicone tubing are appropriate for automated analysis of waters, with potential for in situ AT determinations. Equilibration of samples across a silicone membrane facilitates rapid, continuous measurements. Alternatively, direct equilibration without a membrane enables analyses of samples as small as 0.50 mL.
Fleger K. L., Liu X., Berelson W. M., Cetiner J. E. P., Adkins J. F. & Byrne R. H., 2025. Total alkalinity measurements in small samples: methods based on CO2 equilibration and spectrophotometric pH. Analytica Chimica Acta: 344432. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2025.344432. Article.
